Self and Social Motivation

What are the four major factors guiding people’s choices?

Risk aversion, temporal discounting, certainty effect, and keeping options open

What does risk aversion mean as one of the factors guiding people’s choices?

Greater importance given to possible losses than to possible gains.

Provide an example of risk aversion.

Choosing to stay in a familiar, unfulfilling job or relationship rather than taking the uncertain step of pursuing a new career or dating pool

What does temporal discounting mean as one of the factors guiding people’s choices?

Greater importance placed on present over future orientation

Provide an example of temporal discounting.

Choosing immediate reward; choosing to take $50 today instead of waiting a month to receive $100

What does the certainty effect mean as one of the factor’s guiding people’s choices?

Greater weight (often too much) given to definite outcomes than to probabilities

Provide an example of the certainty effect.

Tversky & Kahneman: Option A, sure gain of $30 (100% probability), Option B, an 80% chance of winning $45. Result: 78% of people pick option A because the certainty of walking away with cash feels much more valuable than a risky gamble.

What does keeping options open mean as one of the factors guiding people’s choices?

Postponing making a final commitment.

Provide an example of keeping options open.

A student in multiple concentrations chooses general studies to avoid choosing the wrong path.

Describe why people avoid making decisions. 

People delay decisions to avoid losing their freedom of choice 

Differentiate between the deliberative and implemental phases of goal pursuit.

1) Choosing what to pursue, then 2) executing and achieving the chosen goal.

Provide an example of deliberate and implemental phases of goal pursuit.

1) You are looking at travel brochures, comparing the costs, weather, and activities of going to Hawaii versus Iceland, trying to decide which vacation is better.

2) You choose Iceland. You stop looking at Hawaii completely. Your focus shifts entirely to booking flights, packing warm clothes, and renting a car.

What does a promotion focus mean in goal pursuit?

Emphasizes hopes, accomplishments, and advancement needs; “ideals”

What does a prevention focus mean in goal pursuit?

Emphasizes avoiding risk, safety, responsibility, and security needs; “oughts”

In an academic setting, what would be a promotion focus in goal pursuit?

Studying diligently for an exam specifically to earn an A, win a merit scholarship, and achieve your dream of getting into graduate school.

In an academic setting, what would be a prevention focus in goal pursuit?

Studying thoroughly for an exam specifically to avoid failing the class, losing your financial aid, or letting your parents down.

Explain psychological reactance theory 

Negative feelings people experience when freedom of choice is limited; forbidden option is more attractive 

Provide an example of psychological reactance theory.

20 y/o college students and younger drinking more than older students.

Describe the effects of believing in free will

Honest behavior, greater personal integrity, more prosocial and helpful, lower aggression, and higher self-control

What is a fixed mindset?

Abilities, skills, and talents cannot change

What is a growth mindset?

Abilities, skills, & talents can change

Provide an example of a fixed vs growth mindset.

“I am not a math person” vs “I don’t understand the material yet”

Fixed mindsets can lead to _______ helplessness.

learned

Example of learned helplessness

A student studies hard for multiple math tests but fails every time. Eventually, they stop studying or trying to solve math problems, believing they are fundamentally incapable of passing.

What is self-efficacy?

The confidence you have in your ability to carry out specific behavior and/or reach a specific goal

Provide an example of self-efficacy.

The amount confidence you have to do the work required to pass a class.

Explain high vs low self-efficacy.

Persevere through challenges vs getting discouraged easily

What is the difference between mindset and self-efficacy?

Mindset is your broad, foundational philosophy about human traits, while self-efficacy is your situational belief in your ability to succeed at a specific task.

What is the self-fulfilling prophecy?

Initial belief, expectation, or prediction causes a person to change their behavior in a way that makes the prediction come true

What is the process of the self-fulfilling prophecy?

1) a belief about a future event or situation, 2) actions that are taken because of this belief, 3) results from these actions that validate the belief.

True or False: The self-fulfilling prophecy can be both a growth or fixed mindset.

True!

What is the self-determination theory?

A theory of motivation stating people thrive when three universal psychological needs are met (competence, relatedness, and autonomy). Meeting these needs drives high intrinsic motivation

What is the Panic Button effect?

reduction in stress of suffering due to belief that one has the option to escape or control situation

Provide an example of the panic button effect.

In a study, people working in a room with a painfully loud noise performed better and felt less stressed simply because they were given an emergency shut-off button—even though they never pressed it.

What is intristic motivation?

Motivation driven by internal rewards and personal satisfaction. You do the activity because you find it naturally fun, interesting, or meaningful.

Provide an example of intrinsic motivation.

Playing video games, painting, or reading a fantasy novel purely for the sheer enjoyment of the activity itself.

What is extrinsic motivation?

Motivation driven by external factors, separate rewards, or avoiding negative consequences. You do the activity to gain something else.

Provide an example of extrinsic motivation.

Studying for a difficult exam just to get an A grade or working at a grocery store exclusively to earn a paycheck.

What is self-control?

Self’s capacity to alter its responses

What are the three major components or self-control?

Standards, monitoring, and strength

Explain the self-control depletion theory.

The idea that willpower is a self-regulating resource (like a muscle). Can deplete self-control resources or strengthen self-control with practice.

Provide an example of the self-control depletion theory.

Forcing yourself to study all afternoon makes it much harder to resist eating junk food later that night.

What is the status of the self-control depletion theory?

It is highly debated due to the replication crisis (many labs failed to recreate the original findings).

Explain how trait self-control is related to motivation and goal pursuit

A person’s stable long-term ability to manage impulses. Drives goal pursuit through good habits and proactive strategies.

What is self-defeating behavior?

Actions that brings failure, suffering or misfortune on self

What is an example of self-defeating behavior?

Procrastinating on a major project until the night before it is due

What are the two main reasons for self-defeating behavior?

1) Immediate tradeoffs (accepting a long-term cost for a short term benefit) and 2) faulty knowledge/strategies (using a counterproductive approach that does not work)

What is the capacity to delay gratification?

The ability to make immediate scarifies for later long-term rewards

What is an example of the capacity to delay gratification?

Skipping a party to study for a final exam

What have research studies revealed about the capacity to delay gratification?

high childhood capacity to delay gratification strongly predicts higher SAT scores, better physical health, better self-control, and greater career success in adulthood.

Describe how self-defeating behavior is a paradox.

Humans are rational beings who almost never seek failure or suffering for its own sake. Instead, self-defeating behavior happens as an unintentional byproduct of chasing immediate pleasure (tradeoffs) or using bad planning (faulty strategies).