Biology

Phagocytosis

Cell extend its membrane and engulf a large particle/the membrane-bound structure created is a phagasome, usually fuses with lysosome

Entropy

Measures of randomness or disorder in a system

Metabolism

Sum total of all chemical reactions in an organism/cell, involves enzyme catalyzed reactions

Anabolism

Synthesis reactions, simple to complex, join molecules, make bonds/energy

Catabolism

Degradtion reaction, complex to simple, break molecules, break bonds, releases energy

Energy

Ability to do work or move matter against an opposing force

Kinetic Energy

Energy of motion

Potential Energy

Not presently at work, but has the capaity to do work

Thermodynamics

How energy moves through systems

1st law of thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred and transformed

2nd law of thermodynamics

Energy transfers and transformations are inefficient, some energy becomds heat energy, disorder

Free Energy

Portion of a systems energy available to perform work

-△G

Less energy, Exergonic, breaking bonds, Catabolic

+△G

More energy, Endergonic, making bonds, Anabolic

ATP

battery that stores energy for the cell to use, 7.3 kcal/mole energy released

ADP

a low battery that can be recharged, what ATP becomes after it loses one phosphate group and releases energy

Catalysts

Chemical agent that changes the rate of reaction without being consumed

Enzyme

Bind to substrates in their active STTG, act by lowering the required activation energy, helps add Pi to ADP to make ATP

How might Enzymes achieve those affects?

Strained bond, bring substartes into close proximity in the right orientation

Factors which impact enzyme-catalyzed reaction rate?

Temperature, Salinity, and PH

Oxidation Reaction

Almost always coupled, moving electrons, oxidation is loss, requires an “oxidizing agent” like oxygen

Reduction Reaction

Almost always coupled, moving electrons, reduction is gain

Glycolysis

First step of cellular respiration, when the cell breaks down glucose into two smaller molecules called pyruvate

Intermediate Step

Second step of cellular respiration, breaks down pyruvate into a molecule called acetyl-CoA, may require energy for active transport

Citric Acid Cycle

Third step of cellular respiration, breaks down acetyl-CoA to release energy

Electron Transport Chain

It makes most of the ATP. Electrons come from NADH and FADH2, Electrons move through proteins in inner membrane of mitochondria and release energy, Energy is used to pump H+, H+ flow back through ATP synthesis, Oxygen accepts the released electrons

Fermentation

Process cells use to make a small amount of energy when oxygen is not available. Not enough oxygen for human cells, Alternate Pathway: allows glycolysis to keep making a small amount of ATP, Lactic acid and NAD+ are produced.

G1 Phase (Cell Cycle)

Cell reaches critical size, enough cellular compounds to divide

Start: G1/S Phase (Cell Cycle)

Transition point, cells which pass start are committed to complete the cell cycles, cell destroyed if unfixable issues

S Phase (Cell Cycle)

DNA replication

G2 Phase (Cell Cycle)

Gap/Growth, ensure the cell has enough of all components to divide

Germ Cells

Only in reproductive organs undergo meiosis to make gametes (egg/sperm)

Interphase

DNA replication in Mitosis

Prophase

Stage 1 of Mitosis, chromosomes condense, nucelolous and nuclear envelope disappear, spindle apparatus assembles

Metaphase

Stage 2 of Mitosis, duplicated chromosomes align in a row between centrosomes

Anaphase

Stage 3 of Mitosis, sister chromatids are split

Telophase

Stage 4 of Mitosis, reverse of prophase, cell finishes dividing its chromosomes

Cytokinesis

Divide the cells

Karyotype

An orderly display of all chromosomes, arrange in homologous pairs, order by length, heteromorphic pairs, sex chromosomes

Prophase I

Stage 1 of Meiosis I. Chromosomes pair up, and crossing over happens, exchange DNA

Metaphase I

Stage 2 of Meiosis I. Chromosomes align as homologous pairs

Anaphase I

Stage 3 of Meiosis I. Matching pairs of chromosomes separate and move to opposite sides of the cell

Telophase I

Stage 4 of Meiosis I. Cell begins dividing into two new cells.

Meiosis II

All same as mitosis, just with only one duplicated copy of each chromosome