16 and 17

Generativity vs. stagnation

the seventh stage in Erikson’s theory in which adults seek to move beyond a concern for their own personal goals and welfare in order to guide future generations and give back to society

Seasons of life theory

a set of life phases that Levinson concluded adults progress through in which life structures are constructed, tested, and modified, based on experiences and opportunities

Life structure

in Levenson’s theory, a person’s overall organization of their life, particularly dreams, goals, and relationships with significant others as well as institutions, such as marriage, family, and vocation

Midlife crisis

a period of self-doubt and stress attributed to entering midlife once thought to contribute to a major reorganization of personality in midlife; now thought to occur in a small minority of adults and to be related to history more than age

Possible selves

future-oriented representations of self-concept into the future; who an individual might become, both hoped for and feared, that guides and motivates choices and behaviors

Big 5 personality traits

five clusters of personality traits that reflect an inherited predisposition that is stable throughout life; the five traits are openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism

What does research reveal about the existence of a midlife crisis?

Research reveals that midlife crises are largely cultural myths rather than something that happens to everyone. There is not evidence that there is a widespread “midlife crisis” that occurs to a large number of people. Those who experience a crisis in their midlife usually can trace it back to an event such as divorce or stress of paring for aging parents and dependent children.

Describe friendships in middle adulthood? How do friendships differ by gender?

Friendships in middle adulthood tend to reduce as people begin to invest more in fewer, higher quality friendships rather than large social networks. There is usually a shift to a desire for quality over quantity of friendships. Women experience more friendships based on emotional intimacy and sharing feelings. Men’s friendships usually are centered around shared activities and hobbies.

What are the benefits of marriage? How does marital satisfaction change over time? What characteristics of marriages are related to increased satisfaction?

Marriage has documented health advantages, as well as a higher level of trust between partners compared to cohabiting adults. Marital satisfaction usually starts off high following the honeymoon, and then declines in the first few years. Additionally, many couples experience a decline in satisfaction following their first child. Satisfaction decreases in midlife and then rebounds once emotional stability improves following the stress of caring for children and aging parents. Characteristics of marriage related to increased satisfaction are positive interactions, friendship, reassurance, and affection.

How does divorce affect individuals and family systems? How do the effects of divorce impact men and women differently?

Divorce affects individuals and family systems by altering usual routines, emotional roles, and economic state. Economic strain is caused by a doubling of rent, utilities, and insurance. Children may experience distress and anxiety, and friendship circles can be altered causing isolation. Women usually experience a sharp drop in income, take primary custody of kids leading to more caregiving stress, and initiate most divorces. They usually rely heavily on friends and family for support. Men usually experience a less significant drop in income, face higher risks of isolation, and remarry quicker.

Discuss the diverse parenting roles middle-aged adults may experience. What types of care do middle-aged adults typically provide their parents? What are the benefits and challenges of parenting older (adult) children during middle adulthood? What are the benefits and challenges of parenting young children during middle adulthood?

Middle-aged adults may experience parenting roles in the sandwich generation, taking care of both kids and parents, empty nesters, boomerang parents as kids move home again, late-life parents, or custodial grandparents. The type of care middle-aged adults provide their parents is by getting daily chores, managing medical appointments, attending with financial oversight, and providing emotional companionship. The benefits of parenting young children during middle adulthood are emotional maturity, financial stability, and more intentional parenting, while challenges include lower energy, disconnect from other parents, and a feeling of isolation.

Describe the roles grandparents play in the lives of their grandchildren.

Some grandparents play a limited role in their grandchildren’s lives while others play a more significant role. Grandparents serve as companions and playmates, caregivers, mentors, and serve to pass down family stories and traditions. Grandparents may also step in as the primary caregiver if a parent faces illness or substance abuse problems.

Young-old

older adults aged 65 to 75, who tend to be active, healthy, and financially and physically independent

Old-old

adults aged 75 to 84, who typically live independently but often experience some physical and mental impairment

Oldest-old

adults aged 85 and older, who are most likely to depend on others for physical and social support to complete daily tasks

Dementia

a progressive deterioration in mental abilities due to changes in the brain that influences higher cortical functions such as thinking, memory, comprehension, and emotional control and are reflected in impaired thought and behavior, interfering the older adult’s ability to engage in everyday activities

Alzheimer’s disease

a neurological disorder characterized by dementia and the deterioration of memory and personality, as well as marked by the presence of memory and personality, as well as marked by the presence of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the cerebral cortex

Vascular dementia

neurocognitive disorder in which sporadic and progressive losses occur, caused by small blockages of blood vessels in the brain

Wisdom

expertise in the conduct and meanings of life, characterized by emotional maturity and the ability to show insight and apply it to problems

What is ageism? Provide examples and explain how ageism is harmful to older adults.

Ageism is stereotyping and discrimination towards people based on their age. Some examples of ageism are passing over older workers for promotions and speaking down to older employees. Ageism harms older adults by increasing stress, fueling depression, reducing lifetime earnings, and potentially shortening the lifespan.

Describe typical changes in appearance in late adulthood.

Typically, in late adulthood, the skin becomes less elastic leading to wrinkles and sagging. The hair thins and loses pigment, and muscle mass declines while body fat increases. The cheeks appear more hollow and the ears and nose appear larger.

Describe sensory and physical changes that occur in later adulthood and their impact on older adults.

In late adulthood, sensory and physical declines reshape how they interact with the world. The vision may be clouded by cataracts, macular degeneration, and glaucoma, limiting the ability to read and increasing the risk of falling. Hearing loss is common and causes social withdrawal due to communication frustration. Additionally, there is a loss of smell receptors and taste buds.There is also reduced nerve sensitivity. Physical changes include muscle loss and loss of bone density. The arteries stiffen and lung capacity shrinks, resulting in high blood pressure risk.

What types of injuries are most common among older adults? What are some risk and protective factors associated with these types of injuries?

Some injuries that are common among older adults are falls, brain injuries, and vehicle crashes. Falls can cause broken hips, and traumatic brain injuries are a common factor in hospitalization. Older drivers and pedestrians often are at a higher risk of injury during collisions. A protective factor against osteoporosis and loss of muscle mass is strength and balance exercise. Additionally, individuals can buy non-slip mats and use seatbelts to avoid risks.

Describe the phases or progression of Alzheimer’s disease. What are the earliest symptoms? At what point do most older adults with Alzheimer’s disease require 24-hour care? What is the relationship between Alzheimer’s disease and dementia?

Prior to Alzheimer’s being diagnosed, an individual has amyloid plaques beginning to build up in the brain. During the early stages, memory loss begins to disrupt daily life and the person begins to struggle with planning and managing things. During the middle stage, an individual experiences deep confusion and forgets things about themselves. They may experience mood swings and need help completing basic tasks. In the late stage, individuals lose awareness of their surroundings and their physical abilities decline. The earliest symptoms are short term memory loss and disorientation. Most adults require 24-hour care if they begin wandering or leaving appliances on. They also need total care when they cannot safely eat, bathe, or use the restroom on their own.

How do attention and working memory change in late adulthood? How do these changes affect the ability to multitask, and what can be done to minimize these new challenges?

Divided attention and working memory decline in late adulthood. Sustained focus on a task usually remains the same. Older adults usually struggle to filter out background distractions and split focus. They are usually able to maintain their sustained attention. Their working memory that is used to briefly manipulate information declines. This causes difficulties in the ability to multitask, due to cognitive capacity being overwhelmed. Some things that can be done to minimize these challenges are focusing on one task, minimizing distractions, and following a routine.

How do contextual and emotional factors influence adults’ performance on memory tasks?

Familiar settings help with older adults’ recall while unfamiliar settings and/or distracting background noise can impair recall. Adults tend to remember information when it relates to their daily life or established knowledge. Additionally, by having retrieval cues, recall is improved. Adults tend to remember positive emotional information better than negative emotional information, and they also remember events that carry strong emotional meaning best. High stress hormones also tend to decrease working memory.

What factors influence cognitive change in late adulthood?

Genetics and disease influence cognitive change as cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, and diabetes can accelerate cognitive decline. Sensory impairment reduces brain stimulation which increases the risk of dementia. Poor sleep quality can disrupt memory consolidation and cause brain fog. Regular exercise helps to protect executive function, along with cognitive stimulation. Social engagement helps to protect against cognitive decline as well.