Sociology BIG BOY Research Methods Flashcards

What is the main difference between Positivism and Interpretivism?

Positivists see society as an objective reality shaped by social forces, preferring quantitative data. Interpretivists see reality as built on subjective meanings, preferring qualitative data

What is reliability in sociological research?

Reliability means a method can be repeated (replicated) by another researcher using standardized tools to obtain the exact same results.

What is representativeness and why is it important to Positivists?

Representativeness means the sample mirrors the characteristics of the target population, allowing researchers to make generalisations.

What is validity in sociological research?

Validity refers to data being authentic, true, and close to the reality of human meanings and social life.

What is the difference between primary and secondary data?

Primary data is collected firsthand by sociologists for their own study. Secondary data is information already collected by others (e.g., official statistics).

Name three practical factors that restrict a sociologist's choice of method.

Time, finance/funding, and access to research subjects.

Name three ethical factors sociologists must consider before researching.

Informed consent, right to anonymity/confidentiality, and protecting vulnerable groups from harm.

What is triangulation?

Combining both quantitative and qualitative methods so the strengths of one balance the weaknesses of the other.

What is operationalisation?

Converting an abstract sociological concept (e.g., "educational achievement") into something measurable (e.g., GCSE grades).

What is a pilot study?

A small-scale trial run of a survey method used to iron out problems and clarify questions before the real study.

What is a sampling frame?

: A complete list of all members of the target research population from which a sample is chosen.

Name four main sampling techniques.

Random, systematic/quasi-random, stratified, and quota sampling.

What is snowball sampling and when is it used?

One respondent introduces the researcher to others; used when no sampling frame exists for hard-to-reach groups (e.g., criminals).

Why do Positivists prefer Laboratory Experiments?

They offer high control over variables, produce reliable quantitative data, and can be easily replicated.

What are three major limitations of Laboratory Experiments?

1) Artificial environment. 2) The Hawthorne effect. 3) Ethical issues regarding deception and lack of informed consent.

What is a Field Experiment?

An experiment conducted in a real-world setting where subjects are usually unaware they are being studied, increasing validity.

What is Durkheim's Comparative Method?

A "thought experiment" comparing two real social groups that differ in only one key variable (e.g., Protestant vs. Catholic suicide rates).

Why do Positivists prefer written Questionnaires?

They are standardized, highly reliable, easy to replicate, quick, cheap, and produce large-scale representative quantitative data.

What are two major limitations of postal Questionnaires?

) Low response rates destroy representativeness. 2) Low validity because questions cannot be explained or clarified.

Why do Positivists prefer Structured Interviews over Unstructured Interviews?

Structured interviews use fixed, closed questions, making them easily quantifiable, reliable, and quick to conduct on large samples.

Why do Interpretivists prefer Unstructured Interviews?

The informal, open-ended style builds rapport, avoids imposing researcher meanings, and yields highly valid qualitative data.

Name two limitations of Unstructured Interviews.

1) Time-consuming and unstandardized (low reliability). 2) Small sample sizes make generalisations difficult (low representativeness).

What is the main difference between Overt and Covert Participant Observation?

Overt: Group knows they are being observed. Covert: Researcher hides their identity and poses as a genuine member.

Why do Interpretivists favour Participant Observation?

It is naturalistic and flexible, giving rich, authentic, and valid insights into the subjects' worldview.

What are two major weaknesses of Covert Participant Observation?

1) Severe ethical issues (lack of informed consent and deception). 2) Risk of "going native" or having cover blown.

What is Structured Observation?

An overt, systematic method using a pre-coded observation schedule to count the frequency of specific actions.

What is the difference between "Hard" and "Soft" Official Statistics?

Hard: Simple counts of objective events (births/deaths). Soft: Socially constructed and easily manipulated figures (crime/unemployment stats).

Why do Marxists and Feminists criticize Official Statistics?

Marxists see them as ruling-class ideology. Feminists argue they hide female unemployment and unpaid domestic labour.

What four tests does John Scott suggest for judging Documents?

Authenticity, Credibility, Representativeness, and Meaning.

Why are classrooms convenient settings for Field Experiments on education?

Classrooms have clear physical and social boundaries, making it easier to control variables when testing teacher expectations.

What are the main ethical concerns when conducting Field Experiments on pupils?

Children are vulnerable, less able to understand the research, and unable to give fully informed consent.

Why is controlling variables difficult in educational Field Experiments?

Schools are complex institutions where external factors (class, streaming, family background) cannot all be controlled.

Why do schools provide excellent sampling frames for researchers using Questionnaires?

Schools keep up-to-date administrative lists of all pupils, parents, and staff.

Why do Questionnaires administered in schools usually get higher response rates?

Headteachers put their authority behind the study, pressuring pupils and teachers to complete them.

What is a major problem with using written Questionnaires on primary school pupils?

Younger children have shorter attention spans, lower literacy levels, and struggle with abstract concepts.

Why do researchers prefer Structured Interviews over written Questionnaires when studying pupils?

Children generally have better verbal communication skills than literacy skills.

How can power and status differences affect Structured Interviews with pupils?

Children view adults as authority figures ("teachers in disguise") and may alter answers to seek adult approval.

How can Unstructured Interviews improve validity when studying pupils?

Informality helps overcome power barriers, builds rapport, and allows the researcher to explain complex questions.

What is a major practical limitation of using Unstructured Interviews in schools?

They are time-consuming, disruptive to school timetables, and difficult for pupils with short attention spans.

Why does interviewer training need to be specialized for interviewing pupils?

Classrooms are closed environments with limited, easily categorised teacher-pupil interactions, making observations fast and easy to replicate.

Why do Interpretivists reject Structured Observation of classrooms?

Counting behaviors into pre-set categories ignores the subjective meanings teachers and pupils attach to those actions.

How does observer presence affect classroom validity during observation?

It triggers the Hawthorne Effect; teachers and pupils alter their behaviour to present a positive image.

Why is Covert Participant Observation almost impossible for adult sociologists studying pupils?

Adult researchers cannot adopt a credible cover role as pupils due to obvious age differences.

Why is Participant Observation in schools rarely representative?

Studies are small-scale and localized to a few classrooms, making generalisation across 35,000 UK schools impossible.

What practical advantages do Official Statistics offer educational researchers?

They provide free, government-funded, nationwide data covering almost every pupil, allowing easy comparison across class, gender, and ethnicity.

How can schools manipulate Official Statistics on attendance or exclusions?

Schools face market pressure to present a positive public image to attract pupils and funding, leading them to re-categorize figures.

Why are Public School Documents (brochures, websites) low in credibility?

They are marketing materials created to attract parents in an education market, presenting an overly positive, selective picture.

What ethical advantage do Public School Documents have over personal documents?

Public documents are already in the public domain, requiring no special consent to analyze.

Why is Structured Observation well-suited to the classroom?

Classrooms are closed environments with limited, easily categorised teacher-pupil interactions, making observations fast and easy to replicate