What characteristics do all living things share?

All living things are made of one or more cells, reproduce, carry out metabolic activities, and maintain homeostasis (a stable internal environment).

Name the taxa in order from broadest to most specific.

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Genus, species

What are the rules of binomial nomenclature?

1. The genus is capitalized, 2. the species name is lowercase, 3. both are italicized or underlined, 3. names are Latin or Latinized.

What is a dichotomous key used for?What is the basic structure of a virus

It is used to identify organisms by choosing between two contrasting characteristics at each step.

What is the basic structure of a virus

A virus contains DNA or RNA (its genome) surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid.

How are viruses classified?

Viruses are classified by their genetic material (DNA or RNA), whether it is single- or double-stranded, their capsid shape, and the type of host they infect.

Name 3 harmful viruses

Influenza, HPV (human papillomavirus), adenovirus, rabies, Zika, and Ebola viruses.

How does the lytic cycle differ from the lysogenic cycle, and which is more virulent?

In the lytic cycle, the virus attaches to the host cell, inserts its genetic material, makes new viruses, and bursts the cell to release them. In the lysogenic cycle, viral DNA integrates into the host's DNA and can remain inactive before becoming entering the lytic cycle. The lytic cycle is generally more immediately harmful.

Distinguish between viroids and prions

A viroid is a small infectious piece or RNA that effects plants, is smaller than a virus and lacks a capsid. A prion is a misfolded protein (same chemical composition but iddferent shape)

What are the different types of vaccines?

• Attenuated: Uses a weakened version of a living pathogen.

• Inactivated: Uses a killed pathogen.

• Subunit: Uses specific parts of a pathogen to trigger an immune response.

• DNA: Uses DNA instructions that help cells produce an antigen, triggering an immune response

What was the first successful vaccine? Who is credited with this discovery?

Edward Jenner developed the first successful vaccine against smallpox using cowpox.

What is the main difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

Prokaryotes are unicellular organism that lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotes can be unicellular or multicellular and have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

What are the similarities and differences between Archaea and Eubacteria?

Both are prokaryotes. Archaea differ in their cell wall structure, plasma membrane lipids, and responses to antibiotics, and Archaea can live in extreme environments.

Describe the shapes, arrangements, and metabolism of bacterial cells.

• Shapes: Coccus (spheres), bacillus (rods), spirillum (spirals).

• Arrangements: Diplo (pairs), strepto (chains), staphylo (clusters).

• Metabolism: Heterotrophs obtain food from other organisms; photosynthetic autotrophs use sunlight to make food; chemosynthetic autotrophs obtain energy from inorganic chemicals.

What are the main structures of a bacterial cell and their functions?

• Cell wall: Protects the cell and gives it shape.

• Cell membrane: Controls what enters and leaves.

• Cytoplasm: Where chemical reactions occur.

• DNA: Contains genetic information.

• Ribosomes: Make proteins.

• Flagella: Help the cell move

• Help bacteria attach to surfaces and transfer genetic material between cells

What is the difference between binary fission and conjugation?

Binary fission is asexual reproduction where one bacterium divides into two identical cells. Conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacteria through direct contact, increasing genetic variation.

Describe three ways bacteria are helpful

• Bacteria of decay: Break down dead organisms and release minerals and nutrients into the soil.

• Bacteria of fermentation: Break down food in the human intestines and help make foods like yogurt and cheese.

• Nitrogen-fixing bacteria: Convert nitrogen into a usable form in the soil or in nodules on plant roots.

Name the groups of ARCHAEA and the environments in which they live.

Halophiles: Live in highly saline environments (the dead sea)
Extreme thermophiles: Live in extremely hot environments (hot springs)
Mathanogens: Live in low oxygen environments (swaps, marshes)
Psychrophiles: Extreamly cold environments (antarctic)
Thermoacidophiles: Hot acidic waters (sulfur, springs, and deep sea vents)

Who discovered the first antibiotic? What was the first antibiotic?

Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, from the mold Penicillium.

What is antibiotic resistance, and how are humans contributing to it?

Antibiotic resistance is when bacteria develop the ability to survive antibiotics that would normally kill them or stop their growth. Humans contribute to it by: Taking antibiotics for viral infections, Doctor prescribing the wrong antibiotics or overusing them, Not finishing antibiotic dosage and stopping early (doesn’t kill off all the bacteria), Over-relying on broad-spectrum antibiotics.
This misuse creates selection pressure, allowing resistant bacteria to survive, multiply, and spread.

Explain the theory of endosymbiosis.

The theory of endosymbiosis states that mitochondria and chloroplasts were originally free-living prokaryotic cells that became part of larger eukaryotic cells.

A larger anaerobic prokaryote engulfed a smaller aerobic prokaryote but did not digest it. They formed a mutually beneficial relationship: the larger cell provided protection and nutrients, while the smaller cell provided the larger anaerobic prokaryote with oxygen to produce energy more efficiently. The aerobic one eventually became the mitochondrion.

A similar event occurred when the larger anaerobic prokaryote engulfed a photosynthetic prokaryote, which eventually became the chloroplast. These events contributed to the evolution of eukaryotic cells.

Describe how PROTISTS are classified.

Protists are classified based on their similarities to plants, animals, or fungi, as well as how they obtain food and move. (protozoan, algae, moulds)

What is the one unifying characteristic of protists?

All protists are eukaryotes, meaning their cells contain a nucleus

How are protozoans classified, and what are the four main divisions?

Protozoans are classified by how they move.
Sarcodina – move using pseudopods.

• Zoomastigina – move using flagella.

• Ciliophora – move using cilia.

• Apicomplexa – non-motile parasites.

Defining characteristic of each group

• Pyrrophyta = red tide

• Chrysophyta = silica shells

• Euglenophyta = flagella and chloroplasts

• Ciliophora = cilia

• Zoomastigina = flagella

• Sarcodina = pseudopods

• Apicomplexa = parasites and no movement

• Water moulds = cellulose cell walls

What are the characteristics of the Fungi kingdom?

Fungi are heterotrophs, can have many nuclei per cell, have no roots, have chitin in their cell walls, store glucose as glycogen, and reproduce using spores.

What is the difference between hyphae and mycelium

Hyphae are individual thread-like structures that make up a fungus, while mycelium is a network of hyphae.

Name 2 human diseases caused by fungi.

Athlete’s foot and ringworm, candidiasis

What type of fungus is causing a drastic decline in amphibian populations around the globe?

Chytridiomycota - has swimming pores, mainly aquatic

How are fungi useful?

• Food source: Mushrooms, cheese

• Antibiotics: Fungi produce antibiotics, such as penicillin, that kill bacteria or stop them from growing.

• Decomposers: Fungi break down dead organisms and recycle nutrients back into the environment.

• Commercial uses: Fungi are used to make bread through yeast fermentation, cheese, and alcohol.

How are fungi similar to plants?  How are they different from plants?

They are both eukaryotic multicellular organisms, (except yeast), they have cell walls, are stationary, anchored in soil, can reproduce asexually or sexually.
Fungi are different from plants because they have chitin in their cell walls, whereas plants have cellulose, they reproduce using spores while plants reproduce using seeds, they don’t have roots, and have many nuclei per cell

What are two reasons that scientists consider fungi to be more closely related to animals than plants?

1.Fungi and animals are both heterotrophs, meaning they cannot make their own food.
2.Fungi and animals both store glucose as glycogen for energy.

What is a symbiotic relationship (symbiosis)? Describe an example using a fungus

Symbiosis is a close relationship between two different organisms where at least one benefits. Leaf-cutter ants feed leaves to a fungus, which grows and provides food for the ants. Both benefit from the relationship.

Name the 5 Phyla of the kingdom Fungi and describe their key features.

Chytridiomycota- only fungi with swimming pores, mainly aquatic, and causes major decline in amphibian populations
Zygomycota- Include bread and fruit moulds
Ascomycota- Includes yeast and penicillum
Basidiomycota- Mushrooms, puffballs, bracket fungi, important decomposers of lignin (woody plants)
Glomeromycota- form symbiotic relationships with plant roots (Mycorrhiza), reproduce asexually

Name the 4 major divisions of plants and give an example of each.

• Non-vascular plants (Bryophytes): Mosses.

• Seedless vascular plants (Pteridophytes): Ferns.

• Gymnosperms (seed-producing vascular plants): (not enclosed in a fruit) Pine trees, cedar, and spruce.

• Angiosperms (flowering vascular plants): (enclosed in a fruit) Lilies and roses.

How does the alternation of generations cycle work?

• Gametophyte (n) → gametes through mitosis.

• Fertilization → zygote (2n).

• Zygote → sporophyte (2n) through mitosis.

• Sporophyte → spores (n) through meiosis.

• Spores → gametophyte (n) through mitosis.

What is the difference between a gametophyte and a sporophyte? For each division of plants, state the dominant stage.

Difference:

• Gametophyte: Haploid (n) generation that produces gametes through mitosis.

• Sporophyte: Diploid (2n) generation that produces spores through meiosis.

Dominant stage for each plant division:

1. Non-vascular plants (Bryophytes): Gametophyte is dominant.

2. Seedless vascular plants (Pteridophytes): Sporophyte is dominant.

3. Gymnosperms: Sporophyte is dominant.

4. Angiosperms: Sporophyte is dominant.

State 3 current threats to plant biodiversity.

• Pollution

• Invasive species

• Climate change

• Habitat destruction

What are the basic characteristics of all plants?

• Multicellular eukaryotes.

• Perform photosynthesis.

• Have cell walls made of cellulose.

• Are producers (make their own food).

• Are sessile (do not move from place to place).

• Have an alternation of generations life cycle.

What are tracheophytes? Which plant divisions are classified as tracheophytes?

Tracheophytes are vascular plants that have specialized tissues called xylem and phloem to transport water, minerals, and sugars.

The plant divisions classified as tracheophytes are:

1. Pteridophytes: Seedless vascular plants, such as ferns.

2. Gymnosperms: Seed-producing plants, such as pine trees.

3. Angiosperms: Flowering plants, such as roses and lilies.

What are spermatophytes? Which plant divisions are classified as spermatophytes?

The two plant divisions classified as spermatophytes are:

1. Gymnosperms: Produce naked seeds, such as pine trees.

2. Angiosperms: Produce seeds enclosed inside fruit, such as roses and lilies.

How are gymnosperms and angiosperms the same? How are they different?

Both gymnosperms and angiosperms have vascular tissue and produce seeds, but only angiosperms produce flowers.

How can you determine whether a mature plant is a monocot or a dicot?

• Monocot: 1 cotyledon, parallel leaf venation, fibrous roots.

• Dicot: 2 cotyledons, net-like leaf venation, taproot.

Describe the roles of dermal, vascular, and ground tissue.

1. Dermal tissue: Protects the plant and helps prevent water loss.

2. Vascular tissue: Transports water, minerals, and sugars throughout the plant. (xylem transports water and minerals through the plant, and phloem transports nutrients and sugars through the plant)

3. Ground tissue: Performs photosynthesis, stores food, and provides support.(parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma) Sclerenchyma cells contain lignin

What are the functions of the major plant organs (roots, stems, and leaves)?

• Leaves: Main site of photosynthesis, allow gas exchange through stomata, and can protect the plant from herbivores.

• Stems: Connect roots and leaves, transport water, minerals, and sugars, and support the plant upright, holding leaves and reproductive structures up.

• Roots: Anchor the plant in the soil and absorb water and minerals.

What is the difference between asymmetry, radial symmetry, and bilateral symmetry? Give an example of each.

1. Asymmetry: No symmetry; cannot be divided into equal halves. Example: Sponges.

2. Radial symmetry: Body parts arranged around a central point. Example: Jellyfish (Cnidaria).

3. Bilateral symmetry: Can be divided into equal left and right halves. Example: Humans (Chordata).

What is the difference between a protostome and a deuterostome? Which phyla belong to each group?

• Protostomes: The mouth develops first. Examples of phyla: Mollusca, Annelida, Arthropoda, and Nematoda.

• Deuterostomes: The anus develops first. Examples of phyla: Echinodermata and Chordata.

What is cephalization? How do animals with cephalization respond differently to the environment?

Cephalization is the concentration of sensory tissues and the brain at the anterior (head) end of the body. It helps animals find food and mates, detect their surroundings, and control their movements more effectively.

What is a coelom? Give an example of an acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, and coelomate animal.

A coelom is a fluid-filled body cavity.

• Acoelomate: No body cavity — flatworm.

• Pseudocoelomate: Has a partially lined body cavity — hookworm (Nematoda).

• Coelomate: Has a body cavity completely lined with mesoderm — earthworm.

What is the main difference between flatworms (Platyhelminthes), roundworms (Nematoda), and segmented worms (Annelida)?

• Flatworms (Platyhelminthes): Flat bodies, no body cavity.

• Roundworms (Nematoda): Round, cylindrical bodies, pseudocoelom.

• Segmented worms (Annelida): Bodies divided into segments, true coelom.

Explain the difference between the germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm) and identify what types of tissues are formed by each.

• Ectoderm: Outer layer; forms the skin and nervous system (brain and spinal cord).

• Mesoderm: Middle layer; forms muscles, bones, blood, and the circulatory system.

• Endoderm: Inner layer; forms the lining of the digestive tract and respiratory system.

Describe what it means to be diploblastic and triploblastic.

• Diploblastic: Animals that develop 2 germ layers — ectoderm and endoderm. Example: jellyfish.

• Triploblastic: Animals that develop 3 germ layers — ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Example: humans.

Given the main characteristics of an animal, state the phylum to which it belongs.

• Porifera: Pore-bearing; asymmetrical.

• Cnidaria: Stinging cells.

• Platyhelminthes: Flatworms.

• Nematoda: Roundworms.

• Annelida: Little rings; segmented worms.

• Mollusca: Soft-bodied.

• Arthropoda: Jointed legs.

• Echinodermata: Spiny skin.

• Chordata: Have a backbone

How are worms used to treat inflammatory diseases? What phylum do hookworms and whipworms belong to?

Worms regulate the body's immune system by calming the immune response, which can reduce inflammation and prevent the immune system from overreacting.
Hookworms and whipworms belong to the phylum Nematoda (roundworms).

What type of worm can help promote blood flow to damaged tissue? What phylum does it belong to?

leeches belong to the phylum Annelida (segmented worms).

Define asexual and sexual reproduction

• Asexual reproduction: One parent produces genetically identical offspring through mitosis

• Sexual reproduction: Two gametes fuse during fertilization to produce offspring. offspring are genetically unique

What are the advantages and disadvantages of sexual and asexual reproduction?

Sexual reproduction:
-Advantages: Produces genetic variation, helping organisms adapt to environmental changes. “speeds up evolution”
-Disadvantages: Requires more time and energy and usually requires finding a mate.

Asexual reproduction

-Advantages: Requires only one parent, is faster, and uses less energy.

-Disadvantages: Produces little to no genetic variation, making populations more vulnerable to environmental changes and diseases. “slows down evolution”

Describe some of the ways in which animals reproduce asexually.

• Budding: A new organism grows from the parent’s body.

• Gemmulation: A new organism develops from a specialized mass of cells called a gemmule.

• Fragmentation: The parent breaks into pieces, and each piece can grow into a new organism.

• Parthenogenesis: An embryo develops from an unfertilized egg.

What is a hermaphrodite? What is the advantage of hermaphroditism?

Hermaphrodite: An organism that has both male and female reproductive organs.
Advantage: Easier to find a potential mate because both individuals have male and female reproductive organs.

What is the difference between a simultaneous hermaphrodite and a sequential hermaphrodite?

• Simultaneous hermaphrodite: Has both male and female reproductive organs at the same time.

• Sequential hermaphrodite: Changes from one sex to the other during its lifetime.

Explain the sequence of events from fertilization to gastrulation in embryonic development.

• Zygote: A fertilized egg formed when two gametes fuse.

• Cleavage: The zygote divides rapidly into many smaller cells.

• Morula: A solid ball of cells forms.

• Blastula: A hollow ball of cells forms.

• Gastrula: Cells move and rearrange to form the germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm).