Test 2

the individual

micro level theories focus on…

middle ages

time period that delinquency was seen as evil and contributed by religious or supernatural forces, punishments were to rid the evil from the individual (torture, beheading, hanging, etc.)

social contract theory

citizens agree to follow the rules of law set forth by society in return for protection from harm

age of enlightenment

Caesar Beccaria; crime was not viewed as a religious sin. Instead, crime was viewed as a rational, conscious choice made through free will

rational choice theory

people have free will and undergo a cost/benefit analysis before deciding whether to commit the crime

biological determinism

the view that biology is responsible for criminal behavior

environmental determinism

the view that one’s environment and experiences are responsible for their criminal behavior

biosocial theories

theories that combine environmental and biological theories

eugenics

the use of selective breeding to improve the human race

craniotemy

the belief that the skull or size of the brain predicts criminality

phrenology

the belief that the shape (how bumpy) of the skull or brain could predict criminality

Lombroso

he rejected the notion of free will and believed in determinism; criminals were not as physically evolved as non criminals; you could be “born criminal”

Sheldon

he classified people into three body types

endomorphic

soft and round with small bones, short limbs, and smooth skin; relaxed and and outgoing with a design for comfort

ectomorphic

fragile, thin, delicate, poor muscles, weak bones; introverted, shy, restrained

mesomorphic

muscled and strong with an upright, hard, sturdy physique; assertive, aggressive, motivated

manifest delinquency

delinquency that had already been acted out

latent delinquency

delinquency that had not been performed yet but was still in the mind or unconscious

neurological defects

natural developmental delays in the prefrontal cortex

testosterone

in the biosocial theories, assumed to be responsible for a greater likelihood of aggressive and delinquent behavior in males

toxins

substances such as lead and manganese that when exposed to them, are correlated with delinquency

children

more susceptible to toxin exposure than adults

Sutherland

differential association theory creator

differential association theory

we learn behaviors and norms from the groups we are in contact with

intimate groups

what type of groups differential association theory says learning occurs most with

Akers

social learning theory creator

Akers’ social learning theory

filled the gap for what types of mechanisms people learn delinquent behavior; combination of differential association theory and behavioral learning theory

Akers’ differential association

exposure to others who model, approve, and encourage delinquent behavior; can be direct or indirect

Akers’ definitions

a person attitudes, beliefs, rationalizations, and moral orientations toward behavior

Akers’ differential reinforcement

the balance of rewards and punishments that follow a behavior

positive reinforcement

a reward after doing a behavior

negative reinforcement

an event that triggers a stop in a behavior that an individual wants to stop

positive punishment

the addition of a punishment meant to decrease the undesired behavior

negative punishment

something is taken away as a punishment, intended to decrease behavior

reinforcement

aim to increase behavior

punishment

aims to decrease or stop behavior

positive

add something

negative

remove something

Akers’ imitation and modeling

engaging in a behavior and seeing others perform it; may come from direct observations or symbolic models

Hirschi

social bond theory creator

social bonds (Hirschi)

bonds to conformity that keep us engaging in socially unacceptable activities; when social bonds are strong, a person will less likely commit crimes. when social bonds are weak, a person will less likely commit crimes

attachment

the emotional component of the social bond that shows a person cares what others think

commitment

the rational component of the social bond that signifies that individuals weigh the costs and benefits of their actions

involvement

the component of the social bond that suggests the more time one spends engaged in conforming activities, the less time one has to deviate

belief

the component of the social bond that suggests the stronger one’s awareness of, understanding of, and agreement with the rules and norms of society, the less likely one is to deviate from these

self-control theory

also known as general theory of crimesel

self-control theory

criminal behavior is linked to self-control; people with low self-control will be impulsive, thrill seeking, and insensitive

continuity theory of crime

one negative behavior patterns have been established, they cannot be changed

Sampson and Laub

do not believe in the continuity theory; believed there are turning points in life that can deter people away from this life

turning point examples

getting married, having kids, getting a job, military service

life course theory

considers the entire course of human life (from childhood, adolescence, and adulthood to old age) as social constructions that reflect the broader structural conditions of society

trajectory

classification of individuals according to their pattern of offending over time

transition

short term changes in social roles within ling-term trajectories, such as dropping out of school, divorce, and distance from delinquency

neutralization

individuals who engage in delinquent behavior generally adhere to societal morals but can justify their actions through a process of ________

techniques of neutralization

rationalizations used by individuals in order to engage in delinquency

denial of responsibility

the belief that outside forces compel a person’s behavior, and thus the person refuses to take responsibility for their actions

denial of injury

a neutralization technique in which the person denies that anyone has

been harmed by their actions

denial of victim

a neutralization technique in which a person justifies their behavior by stating that the person who was victimized deserved it or that because of circumstances, the delinquent act committed needed to occur

condemnation of the condemers

neutralization technique in which a person tries to turn the tables on those who condemn or disapprove of their behavior by condemning them

appeal to higher loyalties

a neutralization technique in which a youth who has committed a delinquent act justifies it on the basis of a higher calling or purpose

general strain theory

focuses on what circumstances lead individuals and groups within a society to engage in delinquent behavior

three major types of strain (GST)

anticipated or actual failure to achieve a goal, loss of positive stimulus, or presentation of negative stimulus

macro level theories

theories of delinquency that focus on the social structure or the big picture of society

Durkheim

a consensus theorist who believed society is held together by a shared set of beliefs, norms, and values, known as the collective conscience, which creates social order and integration

Durkheim’s Anomie Theory

explains how rapid social change and weakened norms create a state of “normlessness,” leading to instability, alienation, and behaviors such as deviance or anomic suicide

social facts

elements of social life that are external to the individual (i.e., they are not created by a person’s individual thoughts or feelings; instead, they are products of the collective social environment) and exert a powerful influence on their behavior

Merton’s anomie

a discontinuity between cultural goals and the legitimate means available for achieving these goals

Merton’s Strain Theory

argues that crime and deviance occur when society promotes cultural goals (like wealth and success) but restricts access to legitimate means of achieving them, producing “strain” that leads to five adaptive responses: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion

conformists

People who accept the cultural goals and work to achieve these goals through culturally accepted means

ritualists

have given up on the goals of society, but still stick to the conventional way to achieve these goals, even if the goals themselves are out of reach

innovators

accept the cultural goal of achieving financial and material success. However, they do not

have access to the conventional ways of achieving success. E.g., They don’t have the money or education to put them on a path toward success

retreatists

have abandoned both the cultural goals and the conventional means to achieve the goals

rebels

reject the cultural goals and the means to achieve the goals, and instead replace them with something else

differential opportunity theory

the view that lower-class youths, whose legitimate opportunities are limited, join gangs and pursue criminal careers as alternate means to achieve universal success goals

social disorganization theory

society is always in a cycle of change that shifts from social disorganization to reorganization and back again. In the process, certain neighborhoods become so disorganized that, in order to adapt to them, people must engage in deviant behavior.

social ecology

the study of relationships among individuals, social groups, and the environment

concentric zone model

explains urban structure as five concentric rings radiating from the Central Business District (CBD), including the transition zone, working-class zone, residential zone, and commuter zone

zone 1

central business district (CBD): The center of the city with many businesses, where the forces of urbanization, immigration, and technological changes have a strong effect

zone 2

The zone of transition: The area right outside of the central business district of a city that experiences the most negative effects of the forces of social change and the highest rate of street delinquency

zone 3

working class zone: Characterized by a high amount of group living (e.g., housing complexes, apartments)

zone 4

Residential zone: An abundance of single-family housing. Usually a middle- to upper-class community with lots of room for children to play and lots of green space (e.g., parks)

zone 5

Commuter zone: Characterized by the least density and the most distance from the forces of social change impacting the central business district. Another name for this zone: the suburbs

Frazier

he utilized the concentric zone framework to look at changes in the rates of Black delinquency in Chicago over time; found that the rate of delinquency had increased after the migration of Black people to the region from the South during and after World War I

collective efficiency

Social cohesion among neighbors that is characterized by efforts to make positive changes in their neighborhoods; a factor that may mitigate or lessen the effects of social disorganization on a community and, in turn, lessen violence

coercive mobility

The removal of people from a poor neighborhood as a result of incarceration. A formerly incarcerated youth or adult reenters the neighborhood with the added socialization of the prison or detention center subculture, which is said to increase the heterogeneity of community values and lead to further disorganization

Shaw & McKay

examined how delinquency in Chicago is related to the concentric zones; found that delinquency rates were the highest in the CBD (zone 1) and the zone of transition (zone 2), consistently over time; their study supported the idea that delinquency can be attributed to location, not to individual traits of people

labeling theory

theory that says the assignment of a label can have a serious impact on an individual’s future

primary deviance

the initial act of deviance or delinquency

secondary deviance

occurs when a person internalizes the deviant identity others have placed on him/her and starts to act in line with the deviant label he/she has been given

stigmatization

the process by which a person is marked or labeled as a deviant of disgrace, which can spoil a person’s normal identity and reduce his or her life chances

spoiled identity

Goffman’s term for what happens when a person has been labeled as delinquent, criminal, or deviant, and the negative identity sticks, leaving him or her in a perpetual state of stigmatization

master status

A status or label that has exceptional importance for social identify, often shaping a person’s life. So, basically a person’s primary status that is more important than all others

degradation ceremony

an act of public denunciation that lowers a person’s status

self-concept and social exclusion

two factors that help explain why secondary deviance occurs in some cases and not in others

self-concept

a concept that refers to the way in which a person views themselves

social exclusion

youth who are negatively labeled as delinquents may later find themselves shut out or excluded from conventional or beneficial opportunities

informal labeling

labeling by peers, teachers, and parents

formal labeling

labeling by juvenile justice or criminal justice officials

Adams et al findings

found that informal labeling played an important role in influencing youth’s future delinquency; when youths’ reflected appraisals (their perceptions of how others see them) were that their peers or teachers labeled them negatively, they were more likely to report they had engaged in delinquent behavior compared to youth who did not perceive such labels

conflict theory

class conflict and that laws tend to reflect the interests of the powerful