Human Factors midterm

Definition of Psychology – Module 1a

Science of Behavior and mental processes of

humans.

Definition of Aviation Psychology

Human behavior and performance in an aviation setting.

Specific goals of Aviation Psychology

-Safety - To reduce errors by humans in aviation settings.

-Efficiency - To increase productivity.

-Comfort - To increase the comfort of both the workers and

their passenger

APA’s definition of Scientific Method

“the set of procedures used for gathering and interpreting objective information in a way that minimizes error and yields dependable generalizations.”

 Different psychological approaches

Behaviorist Approach – How the environment affects behavior?

Cognitive Approach – Studies mental processes and is concerned with understanding

how people think, remember, and reason.

Biological Approach – Studies internal physiological processes and how they influence

behavior.

Social Approach – How we interact with other people and emphasizes the individual

factors that are involved in social behavior, along with social beliefs, and attitudes.

Developmental Approach – Emotional development, social development, cognitive

development, and interactions between them.

Humanistic Approach – Focuses on individual experiences, rather than people in

general.

What is a Model?

Simplified representation of reality

 SHEL Model

SHEL Model

Originated by Edwards (1988)

Later Modified by Hawkins (1993)

Components:

Software – Procedures, Manuals, Checklists, and Literal Software

Hardware – The physical system (aircraft, ship, operating

suite) and its components

Environment – The situation in which other elements (L, H,S) operate, including working conditions, weather, organizational structure, and climate

Liveware – The people (pilots, flight attendants,

mechanics, etc)

b. Dreyfus & Dreyfus (1986) – Levels of developing expertise

Novice – Learns basic facts, terminology, and rules and how

they are applied in well-defined circumstances

Advanced Beginner – Begins to develop a feel for rules

through repeated practical application. The student begins to

understand the use of concepts and rules in situations that

are similar to those in prior examples.

Competence – Has a deep enough understanding of the rules

to know when they are applicable and how to apply them in

novel situations.

Proficiency – Has a refined and internalized sense of rules.

Expert – Produces increasingly abstract representations and

can map novel situations to the internalized representations.

c. Fitts & Posner (1967) – Phases of Skill Acquisition

Three Phases to Skill Acquisition:

Cognitive Phase: Characterized by slow, declarative learning

or primarily verbal information.

Associative Phase: Characterized by the detection and

elimination of errors in performance, and the strengthening of

connections.

Autonomous Phase: Characterized by automated and rapid

performance, requiring less deliberate attention and fewer

resources.

d. Wickens Model

Wickens Model

Discrete Stages for the processing of information Provision of both a working memory and a long-term memory

-Continuous Feedback Stream

-Attention resource component

Limited attention store – Humans must allocate among all

the ongoing tasks.

Attention – Selective Nature

8. Accident Causation Model - Swiss Cheese Model – Module 1b

1. Basic Research Vs. Applied Research – Module 2a

Basic Research – How a human brain perceives and

processes information?

Applied Research – How that understanding could be

used in the design of display systems or developing tests

2. Independent Vs. Dependent Variables

Independent variable (IV): The variable you change or use to explain or predict something.

Dependent variable (DV): The variable you measure to see whether it changes in response to the independent variable.

Example (aviation): Studying how fatigue affects pilot performance.

• Independent variable: Amount of sleep a pilot gets.

• Dependent variable: Pilot performance.

Continuous Vs. Categorical Variables –

Continuous variables: Numerical measurements that can take many different values, including decimals.

- Examples: Flight time (2.5 hours), temperature (18.7°C), reaction time (1.42 seconds).

Categorical variables: Variables that place information into specific groups or categories.

- Examples: Pilot certificate (student, private, commercial), aircraft type (Diamond, Cessna, Piper), weather conditions (VFR, IFR).

4. Experiments – Textbook Section 2.7.1 Page 29

An experiment is a study in which researchers deliberately change or manipulate an independent variable to see how it affects a dependent variable.

Example (aviation): Researchers randomly assign pilots to get either 4 or 8 hours of sleep, then measure their reaction times in a flight simulator

5. Quasi-Experiments – Textbook Section 2.7.2 Page 30

A quasi-experiment is a study that examines the effect of something without randomly assigning participants to groups.

Example (aviation): Researchers compare the performance of pilots who get 4–5 hours of sleep with pilots who get 7–8 hours of sleep.

6. Correlation – Textbook Section 2.7.3 Page 30

Correlation describes the relationship between two variables. It tells you how they change in relation to each other.

There are three main types:

• Positive correlation: Both variables tend to increase together. Example: More flight experience is associated with higher performance scores.

• Negative correlation: One variable increases while the other tends to decrease. Example: More fatigue is associated with slower reaction times.

• No correlation: There is no clear relationship between the variables. Example: A pilot's shoe size and their flight performance.

Descriptive Statistics –

Measures of Central Tendency

Mean - Average

Median – Ranked Data

Mode - Frequency

Continuous Scale – Mean & Median

Categorical Scale – Mode

Measures of Variability

Standard Deviation – Average deviation from the mean

Variance – Squared differences

Correlations

Relationship between two variables

Both variables – Continuous

Varies between -1.0 to +1.0

Inferential Statistics – Module 2

Inferential statistics use information from a sample to draw conclusions about a larger population.

-A p-value below 0.05 is a commonly used cutoff for statistical significance.

Definition of Physiology – Module 3a

a branch of biology that deals with the functions and activities of life or of living matter… and of the physical and chemical phenomena involved

 Definition of Aviation Physiology – Module 3a

the study of human systems’ integrated functions and the processes by which they maintain bodily functions

Normal environment Vs. Environmental conditions – Module 3a

Normal Environment – at sea level and no unusual forces

Environmental conditions – an airplane at an altitude, with g-forces exerting loads

in unusual directions

Person: Drugs, alcohol marijuana 

Altitude effects: Lack of Oxygen and Pressure – Module 3a

Hypoxia.

Partial pressure of oxygen decreases – The human body has

increasing difficulties in absorbing sufficient oxygen to

maintain bodily functions

Time of Useful Consciousness (TUC) – Module 3a

TUC – Maximum time that a pilot has to make and carry out

decisions at a given altitude without supplemental oxygen.

-As altitude increases above 10,000 feet – the symptoms of

hypoxia increase in severity and the TUC decreases

6. Table – Effect of Altitude on TUC – Module 3a

7. Causes of hypoxia – Module 3a

Pilots who had been flying for some time or just above 10,000 feet without

supplemental oxygen.

• Malfunctioning or misuse of supplemental oxygen.

8. Symptoms of hypoxia – Module 3a

Cyanosis (Blue fingernails and lips)

• Headache

• Decreased reaction time

• Impaired judgement

• Euphoria

• Visual Impairment

• Drowsiness

• Lightheaded or dizzy sensation

• Numbness

9. Types of hypoxia – Module 3a

Hypoxic Hypoxia, Hypemic Hypoxia, Stagnant Hypoxia, Histotoxic Hypoxia

10. Stages of hypoxia – Module 3a

11. Blocked Eustachian Tube – Module 3b

Expansion of gas trapped in the middle ear – Ear and Sinus Pain Temporary reduction in hearing

12. Sinus block – Module 3b

-FREQUENT DURING DESCENT. DONT FLY IF SICK, Slowing or stopping the

descent until the pressure inside the sinus equalizes with the external pressure

13. Decompression sickness – Module 3b

Decompression sickness – Dissolved nitrogen is released resulting from a decrease in atmospheric pressure

-At least a 4-hour waiting period after scuba

diving (no required decompression before flying

to a cabin altitude of 8,000 feet or less

• 24-hour wait after dives requiring

decompression for altitudes above 8,000ft

14. Definition of Fatigue – Module 3b

“Difficult to define”, BUT on the slide show quotes this: “a condition characterized by increased discomfort with lessened capacity for work, reduced efficiency of accomplishment, loss of power or capacity to respond to stimulation, and is usually accompanied by a feeling of weariness and tiredness

15. Chronic Vs. Acute Sleep Deprivation – Module 3c

Chronic sleep deprivation – Accumulative effects of

restricting sleep to less than 8 hours daily over an

extended period

• Acute sleep deprivation – A single period of enforced

wakefulness (24-36 hours)

16. Symptoms of Fatigue – Module 3c

17. Circadian Rhythms – Mo

your body's natural 24-hour internal clock that coordinates physical, mental, and behavioral changes

1. Definition of Ability – Module 4a

Definition – Developed skill, competence, or

power to do something, whether mental or

physical (Coleman, 2001)

2. Definition of Intelligence – Module 4a

Intelligence – an aggregate of many different but interrelated,

cognitive processes and abilities

3. Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence – Module 4a

Fluid Intelligence – Capacity to reason and solve novel problems, independent of

any knowledge from the past.

Crystallized Intelligence – Capacity to use skills, knowledge, and experience

Crystallized Intelligence – One’s vocabulary and general knowledge with regard to

their age

4. Three strata of Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory of Cognitive Abilities – Module 4a

Stratum I: Includes narrow, specific abilities

Spelling ability Speed of reasoning

Stratum II: Includes group-factor abilities

Fluid Intelligence Crystallized Intelligence

Stratum III: A single general intelligence factor

5. Top-rated pilot ability on USAF pilot ratings – Module 4a

Situational Awareness 4.88

6. Abilities of RPV operators – Module 4a

Oral and written

comprehension Communication

. Definition of Personality and Traits

Merriam-Webster Dictionary – “the totality of an individual’s

behavioral and emotional characteristics.”

Dictionary of Psychology – “The sum total of the behavioral

and mental characteristics that are distinctive of an

individual.”

Personality - the sum of a large number of personality traits –

Habitual patterns of behavior, thoughts, and emotions.

Traits – relatively stable over time – Differ across individuals,

and they influence behavior.

8. Eysenck (1997) Model – Three major personality traits – Module 4b

Personality – Three major traits

Neuroticism – an individual’s tendency to become upset or emotional

Extraversion – the outward projection of one’s personality through

gregarious, outgoing, sociable behavior

Psychoticism – personality pattern typified by aggressiveness and

interpersonal hostility

9. Five-factor model – Five Basic Dimensions- Module 4b

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Conscientiousness

Neuroticism

Openness to Experience

10. HEXACO Model – Six dimensions – Module 4b

job description

activities or tasks to be performed

 Person specification

Skills, Expertise, Knowledge, and other physical/personal qualities

Civilian Pilots

 Cognitive abilities, psychomotor and sensory abilities

 Cooperative/social skills domain – Stress, communication,

decision-making

 Military Pilots

 Most important – situational awareness, memory, motivation,

reasoning

 Least important – reading comprehension and writing

 Both military and civilian pilots

 Cognitive and Social Skills - Important

 Leadership – low rating for military pilots

 Civilian pilots – cooperative and social skills – High rating

UAV/RPA Pilots

Same abilities, skills, and traits as regular military pilots

 Two additional abilities

 Time-sharing ability

 Person-environment fit

Work-Sample Test –

Less comprehensive approach

Candidate – performs a similar task or the same task as the person would do as part of the job

Prediction of behavior

Best practices: Standardized scoring rules - performance

Predictors – Pilot Selection

Written tests

 Knowledge of aviation regulations

 Flight procedures

 Scenario-based assessment in flight simulation training device

(FSTD)

 Airlines

 Off-the-shelf computerized tests

 In-house custom-developed assessments

 Four types of reliability

Test-retest reliability – the degree to which scores on an instrument

at time 1 and time 2 are similar

 Parallel form of reliability – the degree to which scores on version 1

and version 2 of an instrument are similar

 Internal consistency – the degree to which the items comprising the

instrument are homogenous and consistent with one another

 Inter-rater reliabilit

Selection Process Utility

• Utility: How useful a hiring test is for helping an organization reach its goals.

• Employee success: How many new employees successfully complete training and perform well on the job within a set time.

• False positive rate: How often a hiring test incorrectly predicts someone will succeed when they actually do not.

• Costs: The money required to create and administer the hiring test.

• Performance monitoring: Management regularly checks employee performance and compares the benefits of the hiring test to its costs.

 Fairness in Selection

• Discrimination laws: Many countries have laws against discrimination based on gender, race, and other protected characteristics.

• Fairness in pilot selection: Making sure pilot hiring and selection processes treat applicants fairly.

• Predictive validity: A selection test should predict job performance equally well across different applicant groups.

• Adverse-impact ratio: Compares the pass rates of minority groups with the pass rate of the majority group.

Formula: Minority group pass rate ÷ Majority group pass rate.

- Employer responsibility: Employers must evaluate whether their selection process creates unfair disadvantages for certain groups.

Best practices

• Check pass rates for each demographic group based on the test's cutoff score.

• Compare alternatives, such as changing cutoff scores or the weight given to different test sections, and examine how they affect predicted job performance and selection rates for each group.

• Document why the cutoff scores were chosen and why the final selection method was used.