terms - chapter 7 (York)

The Science of Nature and the Nature of Science

logic of science

The philosophy of knowledge that underlies the scientific enterprise, informing its methods and theories.

establishment of science

The practice of science; the social, economic, political, and cultural institutions that support it; the research centers (universities, transnational corporations, and national laboratories) where scientists work; and the scientists themselves.

• Since science is pursued by humans, it is intrinsically a social phenomenon and thus cannot be seen as a free-floating institution disembodied from other human endeavors.

• numerous (white) scientists throughout the 19th and 20th centuries (and some to this day) expended substantial efforts on measuring every aspect of human bodies in an effort to find biological bases for socially constructed racial categories, and this “science” was regularly deployed to legitimize racial injustice and colonialism. It is also important to acknowledge that many of the insights and empirical evidence on which science was built were appropriated (usually without acknowledgment) from Indigenous and other cultures as part of colonial projects.

• scientific findings and theories may reflect to some degree the social milieu in which they were formed.

• the modern scientific establishment from its start was not aimed simply at the goal of understanding the world in which we live but was intimately linked to existing power structures and typically focused on achieving ends dictated by the ruling class.

• so much of scientific effort has been directed at developing weapons.

• another substantial share of research effort is driven by raw financial interests, where corporations seek to increase profits by developing technologies of production and new products for the market, without particular regard for human well-being, environmental sustainability, or the lives of other creatures

empiricism

The theory of knowledge that asserts that all true knowledge comes from our senses—sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell—not from ungrounded speculation or divine revelation.

rationalism

The theory of knowledge that asserts knowledge comes from logical deduction and reason, not from our senses.

modernity

The period in Western history beginning approximately in the 16th or 17th century, characterized by the rise of capitalism and the move away from medieval institutions.

impact science

Science that studies the impacts to the environment and human health caused by industrial development. However, such “impact science,” since it does not directly lead to profits, does not have the ready access to sources of funding that are available to researchers who do work that is helpful to corporations.