4.4 learning theories

Three learning theories: 

• Operant conditioning  

• Cognitive theory of learning  

• Social learning / observational learning  

Operant conditioning

Learning using trial and error and conditioning through the most effective response through practice 

Cognitive theory of learning

Learning by doing the whole skill and using problem solving to work out how to most effectively perform the skill

Social learning / observational learning

Learning through watching and copying others

Thorndike's laws (operant conditioning)

Laws developed to help strengthen the S-R bond when using operant conditioning as a learning method

• Law of exercise

• Law of effect

• Law of readiness

what is an S-R bond

the connection that is made between a stimulus and the response made to this stimulus

Law of exercise

Skills improve through training so you train with more focus 

e.g. if a lacrosse player practices cradling for 10 minutes a day it will strengthen the S-R bond 

Law of effect

Positive outcome or satisfaction from the practice makes you continue  

e.g. if they are able to use cradling effectively to get past a defender whilst maintaining possession they will gain more confidence and satisfaction so will continue to practice 

Law of readiness

You need to be physically and mentally strong enough to do the skill you are practicing or learning 

e.g. they must have wrist strength and flexibility in order to carry out the motion of cradling 

Reinforcement

Used to strengthen the S-R bond and therefore increases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur in the same way again  

• It is defined by the effect that it has on behaviour  

• It increases or strengthens the response 

Behaviourist theories

Theories that explain how our actions are linked to certain stimuli 

• Based on the idea that all behaviours are acquired through conditioning  

• Our responses to the environment shape our actions  

Operant conditioning

• Uses reinforcement to make sure that the correct responses are repeated 

• Environment is manipulated so that the appropriate response is arrived at  

• Allows a skill to be learned 

• Performer is rewarded by achieving the appropriate result  

• They are then likely to repeat result 

Development of operant conditioning

• Based on work of behavioural psychologist B.F Skinner 

• He observed rates on a 'Skinner box' 

• Rats accidentally pressed bar and released food  

• They learnt that they gained a reward when the bar was hit  

• So their behaviour was reinforced 

Satisfier

An action that gives a pleasant feeling so that the response is likely to be repeated 

Annoyer

An action that creates disappointment and unease, meaning that the incorrect response is avoided in future 

Key features of operant conditioning: 

• Based on trial and error learning  

• Shapes behaviour with the use of reinforcement  

• Environment can be manipulated to encourage the correct response  

Main principle of operant conditioning

Reinforced actions are strengthened and incorrect actions are weakened

Positive reinforcement

• Involves additional, pleasant stimulus occurring after the correct response 

• Increases likelihood that behaviour will occur again in the future 

• Usually in the form of praise or a reward  

• e.g. a coach giving a sweet to a tennis player when their serve lands 

Negative reinforcement

• Removal of a negative or unpleasant stimulus after the correct response 

• Most effective when the reinforcer occurs immediately after the incorrect behaviour  

• e.g. a coach stops shouting instructions at the player when they make a successful cross 

Punishment

• Presenting an unpleasant stimulus to weaken a behaviour and prevent the incorrect action occurring again 

• Decrease the chance that a behaviour will occur  

• e.g. a coach making a player do a sprint when they gives a bad pass 

Key concepts of cognitive learning

1. Insight learning  

2. Intervening variables

Cognitive learning

a Gestaltist view of learning where the skill should be learnt in its entirety using whole practice 

Insight learning in the cognitive learning theory

This is using problem solving and using memory of effective experiences to solve a new challenge  

• A coach explains why a badminton player should return a serve using an overhead clear

• A coach telling a netball player to always bring the ball up before passing 

Intervening variables

These are the mental processes involved in decision making 

• A coach in badminton could encourage the player to think about the height of the serve and where the player is stood before deciding where to place the clear 

• Sometimes netball players may need to keep it low e.g. to carry out a bounce pass 

Advantages of cognitive learning

• Performer can become more independent and self correct during a game  

• They can adapt better to different situations  

• They could make quick progress  

• They develop kinesthesis 

Disadvantages of cognitive learning

• Using whole practice might be a problem if the skill is difficult or dangerous or if the performer is a beginner 

• Learning could be slower if the performer doesn’t understand what to do and therefore might lose motivation  

• They might not have any past experiences to draw on  

Social learning

• Developed by the psychologist Bandura

• also constructed four processed that underpin the successful modelling for more effective use of this theory

• It is based on watching and copying behaviour and social interactions from significant others. 

Bandura’s four processes (social learning theory)

1. Attention

2. Retention

3. Motor reproduction

4. Motivation

Attention

The performer must be paying attention to the demonstration e.g. watching a performer carry out a serve in tennis 

Retention

The performer must be able to remember the demonstration e.g. watching a significant other complete the serve successfully  

Motor reproduction

The performer must be physically and mentally able to carry out the skill being demonstrated e.g. performer practices the skill of serving 

Motivation

The performer needs to want to carry out the skill e.g. they have seen it successfully carried out so they are motivated to be able to do so themselves 

Significant others

People who are role models to us.

They are important to us and therefore we are more likely to pay attention to them and copy their behaviour.

Cueing

Identifying important cues or stimuli  

• E.g. watching the arm of your opponent when receiving a serve in tennis 

Factors that might affect successful modelling: 

• If the model is the same or similar to you in terms of age/gender/sport 

• If they are significant or a ROLE MODEL 

• If the demonstration is high standard/successful 

• If the model is friendly or attractive  

• If the demonstration is clear/repeated   

• If the observer is motivated