Kantian Ethics - OCR A-Level Religious Studies

What did Kant say about experiences?

We experience things as they appear via our senses, not what they are themselves.

What did Kant say about causality?

The natural reaction to pain is to look for the cause. We experience the world this way because it is a category of our mind that shapes sensations so you clearly experience them this way.

How is Kant's causality a priori?

The 'law of the mind' shapes how we experience the world. This is fully based on reason.

What does Kant believe about knowing the world?

We can never know the world as it is - it is a phenomenon or appearance and may be different to the true world in itself.

What does Kant believe about sense of morality?

We all know what it is to have a sense of moral obligation, to believe there is a right action irrespective of consequences.

What does Kant believe about moral principles themselves?

Starting from experience of morality, it is possible to give a systematic account of moral duties and their founding principles which are universal and based on pure reason.

What does Kant believe about humans as rational beings?

This constitutes an intrinsic dignity to us - reason is an innate, intellectual power existing more or less equally in everyone. It enables individuals to solve problems in a way more or less acceptable to all.

What does Kant believe about the universality of morality based on reason?

If reason is universal, moral commands generated by reason are universal and applicable to everyone.

What belief does Kant share with many other enlightenment philosophers?

Importance of reason.

What is Kant's moral law?

The objective, universal moral guidelines deduced via reason.

What is duty according to Kant?

The requirement to follow moral law regardless of feeling or consequences.

What is good will according to Knat?

The intention of right decisions according to the moral law - the only intrinsically good thing.

What is Kant's quote on duty vs inclination?

"He does good not from inclination but from duty."

What is Kant's quote on the morality of duty?

"(Doing) an action for the sake of duty alone... (has) a moral worth beyond all comparison at the highest."

What did Kant say about the difference of duty and inclination?

We have a duty to follow moral laws different to acting out of inclination or compassion - duty is an absolute that should be followed solely for its own sake.

What type of theory is Kant's?

Deontological - examines rationality to determine morality.

Why should we obey rules?

For the sake of them being good and absolute.

What is a moral maxim and how is it tested?

Maxims are moral rules by reason - to rationally deduce a moral law, we must consider whether we can always say someone should follow it absolutely. If this is untrue e.g. not lying, it is not morally permissable.

Why is lying wrong according to Kant?

To allow it once would need full allowance, making it impossible as a maxim as it is not absolute (e.g. white lies).

How did Kant say we know we are free?

Because we experience moral choice - to act morally needs an act out of the autonomy of free will.

What is the good will phenomenon?

To celebrate what can be achieved via reason - good will is the only virtue is fully pure and doesn't have the chance to be misused for immoral deeds.

What does Kant say about good will's value?

"Good will is like a jewel that shines by its own light and has value in itself".

How does Kant judge whether a specific action would be right or not based on good will?

An action like helping someone elderly cross a road, for example, is only moral if it is out of good will and not inclination. Only if it is done for the sake of being good.

What is the shopkeeper example of good will?

A shopkeeper is kind and highlights offers to customers.

- If this is out of good will to help the customer even if the shopkeeper loses some money, this is good.

- If this is out of personal motive for more long-term profit or to feel good, it is bad.

What did Kant believe about animals' realm?

Animals have desire and inclination - no reason, purely empirical/appetite-led. Phenomenal Realm.

What did Kant believe about God & Angels' realm?

God and angels have perfect rationality without appetite or desire leading them astray. Only reason-based morality.

Noumenal Realm.

What did Kant believe about humanity's realm?

Both reason and desire - our nature experiences tension between these. Both phenomenal and noumenal realms.

What are our two types of knowledge?

A posteriori (sense-dependent) and A priori (not dependent on experience).

What two realms can humans access?

Noumenal and phenomenal.

What is moral knowledge for us?

Perceivable at first sight - comes from within. Not based on experience/weighing up - knowledge is already there.

What are a priori propositions? Give an example.

Not grounded in experience e.g. "All bachelors are unmarried".

What are a posteriori propositions? Give an example.

Reliant on experience e.g. "All bachelors are unhappy".

What are analytic propositions? Give an example.

Predicate within subject e.g. All triangles have 3 sides. Effectively absolute truths.

What are synthetic propositions? Give an example.

Predicate outside of subject e.g. All bodies are heavy.

What are the three types of proposition?

Analytic a priori,

Synthetic a priori,

Synthetic a posteriori.

Analytic a posteriori is not possible as sense can't be absolutely true.

What type of proposition does Kant say moral knowledge is?

Synthetic as needs observation to be true (predicate not within knowledge) e.g. killing always being bad.

Also is a priori though as from reason, perceivable at first sight rather than needing sense experience.

Give examples of a priori propositions.

All gorillas are mammals.

The sun rises.

All sugar is sweet.

Give examples of a posteriori propositions.

All people are good.

All bachelors are unhappy.

Give examples of synthetic propositions.

All creatures with hearts have kidneys.

All creatures with brains are kind.

All bodies are heavy.

Give examples of analytic propositions.

All silver is metallic.

All triangles have three sides.

All humans will die.

Why may goodness depend on fulfilling duty?

Fulfilling duty cannot be biased because morality and duty is innate and absolute - cannot be 'bad' in this sense.

Why may goodness not depend on fulfilling duty?

You may be able to do subjectively 'good' things without fulfilling an absolute duty.

Wouldn't it be better to judge situationally and deliberate?

What is an issue with maxims?

Maxims may clash e.g. lying and preserving life in the Nazi example. This makes it logically questionable.

What is an imperative?

Something that must be done.

What is Kant's quote on imperatives?

"If the action would be good simply as a means to something else, it is hypothetical. If an action is good in itself, it is categorical."

Why did Kant oppose the hypothetical imperative?

Not moral - it is conditional on motive and desire. Free of obligation.

What is the categorical imperative?

Prescribes actions regardless of the result, moral obligations. Independent of motive and desire.

Why was Kant critical of examples?

They are "moral yardsticks" relying on emotion rather than reason.

What are the three parts of Kant's categorical imperative?

- Universal law.

- Humans as ends.

- Kingdom of ends.

What was Kant's universal law in the categorical imperative?

"Always act so that the maxim of your action should become, through your will, a universal law" - i.e. what would happen if everyone else did the same?

For something to be moral, has to be moral all the time (universalisation).

What was Kant's principle of humans as ends in the categorical imperative?

Practical Imperative - "Always treat humanity... as an end in themselves and never as a means to an end".

Do not use people, like killing one person to save many. This denies their humanity and devalues life. Always do to people as we would have done to us.

What was Kant's proposition of 'The Kingdom of Ends' in the categorical imperative?

"Always act as a law-making member of a kingdom of ends" - Think of the precedent your actions are setting.

Immoral actions give others the green light to be immoral too as they can say it is acceptable because others do it. Set good examples.

What is a major criticism of Kant's over-reliance on reason?

We are between the noumenal and phenomenal realms - if we only pursue reason, we are declining a whole other side to our nature which is simply naturally part of who we are.

From what judgement is inclination and emotion bad? It is part of being human.

What are the three postulates?

Freedom/Summum Bonum, Immortality, God.

What is Summum Bonum?

Supreme good and happiness received in the afterlife as a reward of duty. Necessary as would not be rational to be moral otherwise. Makes morality rational, reached by following the categorical imperative out of duty, not inclination.

Why must God be accepted in the three postulates?

Only divinity and omnibenevolence would give such a reward. Only an omnipotent, omniscient God would have the power and knowledge to give such a reward.

Our innate morality is rational and proof of God.

What is Immortality as a postulate?

We are immortal - we must have an immortal soul as such goodness must be possible in the afterlife - this reward only makes sense when our decision-making comes to an end i.e. death.

Good people may seem to be unrewarded in this life which doesn't make sense; an afterlife makes this make sense.

What is possibility of freedom within summum bonum as a postulate?

To obtain the summum bonum, you must have acted freely to get a reward. Therefore, freedom is possible. This is why humans should not be used as a 'means to an end'., lying being bad etc.

Why may the summum bonum be questionable?

If we are acting rationally and morally because of the drive to summum bonum, is it really unconditional duty/categorical? It may be more hypothetical as it seems to be acting out of inclination.

Why may the summum bonum be seen as incoherent regarding rational action?

It doesn't seem to be a rational action for its own sake (hypothetical).

What is a major criticism of the summum bonum related to the existence of God or the soul?

There is no proof for a God or soul, or explanation for how this would link to other concepts like duty and maxims.

What did Kant say about making decisions based on happiness and inclination?

Kant frequently said making decisions from a drive of happiness and inclination is bad.

What is a critique of the concept of 'good' in relation to the summum bonum?

'Good' seems very subjective.

What is a criticism of the summum bonum's reliance on postulates?

It is too vague and reliant on the assumption that postulates are true.

Why may the summum bonum be seen as coherent?

- Clearly links to duty, adding rewards to the concept of morality.

- Having a God and soul seems to make sense for how such reward could be possible and received.

- Gives clear view of how people who do good can be rewarded, and those who do bad are not.

What type of fallacy may the summum bonum be and why?

Petitio principii/begging the question fallacy - the conclusion is assumed in the premises i.e. God and soul existing.

What is the summum bonum as an end goal?

End goal of the categorical imperative.