testing method faa PPL written

frost

decrease performance, spoil airflow, increase drag, decrease lift

wake vortex (turbulence)

greatest vortex during heavy, clean, slow config.

created during lift @ wingtip vortices

they sink and go outward

Plane take off: fly ABOVE; land BEYOND; take off BEFORE

Plane landing: fly ABOVE; land BEYOND; take off BEYOND

If an airplane weighs 4,500 pounds, what approximate weight would the airplane structure be required to support during a 45° banked turn while maintaining altitude?

4,500 × 1.414 = 6,363

forces of flight

thrust, lift, weight, drag

Accelerated Flight:

-Climb (T>D L>W)

-Descent (T<D)

Unaccelerated Flight: Lift=Weight Thrust=Drag

Drag

-Parasite : Form (shape like wheels/antennas); Skin Friction (air molecules stick to plane); Interference (airflows colliding) ((caused by plane physical parts))

-Induced (byproduct of lift)

H (under wing) -> L (above wing) pressure @ tips (wingtip vortices) (also lift)

Vortices push airflow downward behind wing (downwash)

Downwash tilts lift force vector backward pulling back on plane (induced drag)

High angle of attack = High induced drag

Low speed = High induced drag

High speed = Low induced drag

AOA

(Angle Of Attack) - angle between wing chord line and relative wind

Stalls

Stall occurs when plane exceeds its critical AOA

Ground Effect reduces stall speed

Plane will stall at any speed

Spins

Occur when plane stalls (one wing is more stalled than the other)

Flight Controls

PRIMARY

Ailerons - roll (Longitudinal Axis)

Elevator - pitch (Lateral Axis)

Rudder - yaw (Vertical Axis)

SECONDARY

Flaps

Trim Tab

CG

CG is plane’s balance point

Aft CG makes the aircraft less stable/ harder to recover from stalls

orward CG makes it more stable but harder to control.

Load factor

Ratio of load supported by wings to actual weight of plane.

Increases during turns, steep banks, abrupt attitude changes, raises stall speed.

Measured in G’s

Maneuvering speed (Va)

Left Turning Tendencies

Torque : propeller rotates clockwise -> plane rolls left

Spiraling Slipstream : propeller rotation cause air stream to backward wrap around fuselage -> pushes tail right -> plane yaws left

P-Factor (Asymmetric Thrust) : only during climb, descending right blade takes bigger bites of air + creates more thrust than other blade (uneven thrust) -> plane yaws left

Gyroscopic Precession : mainly affects tail wheel planes, when tilting a spinning object the results happens 90 degrees later in direction of spin

Effects strongest in HIGH POWER, LOW AIRSPEED, HIGH AOA

Ground Effect

+ lift & - induced drag occurs within one wingspan distance from the ground

bc of this, plane is airborne @ lower speed than normal recommend climb speed

if plane lifts off before recommend speed, plane will leave ground effect, due to + induced drag plane might stall/settle back onto runway

any excess speed carried into flare while landing will cause floating down the runway

Happens bc the ground physically blocks and flattens airflow preventing wingtip vortices from fully forming, since vortices are restricted = -downwash, this alters relative wind, rotating lift vector forward and lowers induced drag

Most ground effect on surface and reduces rapidly until completely disappears once plane climbs above one wingspan.

V speeds

Vs0 41 KIAS Stall speed in landing configuration

Vs1 47 KIAS Stall speed in clean configuration

Vx 64 KIAS

Vy 78 KIAS

Vfe 85 KIAS Max flap extend speed

Vno 128 KIAS Max structural cruising speed

Vne 160 KIAS Never exceed speed

Va 2300 LBS 97 KIAS Maneuvering speed

1950 LBS 89 KIAS

1600 LBS 80 KIAS

Instrument Approach 85 KIAS

Go Around 55 KIAS

Best Glide 65 KIAS

Max X-Wind 15 KTS