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Descriptive research

Research used to observe and describe behaviour.

Correlational research

Research used to determine whether a relationship exists between variables.

Experimental research

Controlled research designed to investigate cause-and-effect relationships between variables.

Clinical or case study

An in-depth investigation of a single person, case, or event. Key limitations include researcher bias and difficulty generalizing results.

Naturalistic observation

Observing people or non-human animals behaving as they normally do in their natural environment. Key limitations include researcher bias and the Hawthorne effect.

Survey

A questionnaire or interview used to collect information from participants. Participant bias is a potential limitation.

Hawthorne effect

A phenomenon where individuals alter their behaviour simply because they are aware they are being observed.

Independent variable (IV)

The variable that the researcher manipulates or changes, hypothesized to cause an effect or influence behaviour.

Dependent variable (DV)

The outcome measured by the researcher that is expected to change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Confounding variable

An uncontrolled factor that could provide an alternative explanation for the observed results.

Experimental group

The group of participants that receives the manipulation or treatment under investigation.

Control group

The baseline comparison group that does not receive the experimental treatment.

Random assignment

A procedure ensuring that every participant in the sample has an equal opportunity to be assigned to either the experimental or control group.

Random sampling

A selection procedure ensuring that every individual in the population has an equal opportunity to be included in the study sample.

Population

The entire group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying and drawing conclusions about.

Sample

A smaller subsection of the population chosen to participate in a research study.

Convenience sample

A group of participants selected simply because they are readily accessible to the researcher, such as undergraduate students.

Matching

A technique where participants are assigned to different groups based on shared, similar characteristics to ensure equivalence.

Quasi-experiment

A study design where participants cannot be randomly assigned to conditions because the variable of interest is pre-existing (e.g., biological sex, psychological diagnosis).

Positive correlation

A relationship where two variables change in the same direction; as one variable increases, the other tends to increase.

Negative correlation

A relationship where two variables move in opposite directions; as one variable increases, the other tends to decrease.

Correlation coefficient

A numerical index ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$ that indicates both the direction and the strength of the relationship between two variables.

Correlation does not prove causation

The principle that demonstrating an association between two variables does not establish that one directly produces changes in the other.

Operational definition

A precise, specific description of how a variable is measured or manipulated within a study.

Reliability

The consistency and repeatability of a measurement or research result across multiple administrations.

Validity

The degree to which a tool or measurement accurately assesses the specific construct it is intended to evaluate.

Replication

The process of repeating an investigation using identical or similar methods to verify whether the original findings can be reproduced.

Placebo effect

Observable physiological or psychological changes driven purely by an individual's expectations rather than an active therapeutic ingredient.

Single-blind study

A research design in which participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group, reducing participant expectancy effects.

Double-blind study

An experimental procedure where neither the participants nor the research staff interacting with them know who is assigned to which condition, preventing both participant and experimenter bias.

Informed consent

An ethical requirement where prospective participants receive adequate details regarding study procedures and potential risks before voluntarily agreeing to take part.

Right to withdraw

An ethical standard permitting participants to cease participation or remove their data at any point without penalty or explanation.

Confidentiality

The ethical practice of safeguarding participants' personal identity and private research data from unauthorized access or disclosure.

Debriefing

A post-experimental session where researchers explain the true purpose, hypotheses, and details of the study to participants, which is essential when deception was employed.

Scenario: A neuropsychologist tracks, interviews, and evaluates one patient recovering from a rare stroke over 18 months. Identify the research method and its primary methodological drawback.

• Method: Clinical / Case study
• Primary drawback: Severe difficulty generalizing findings beyond that specific individual, alongside potential researcher bias.

Scenario: An ethologist records playground interactions between children from behind a two-way mirror without making their presence known. Identify the research method and explain why the mirror was used.

• Method: Naturalistic observation
• Purpose of the mirror: To prevent the Hawthorne effect (ensuring children do not alter their spontaneous behaviour due to knowing they are being observed).

Scenario: A researcher tests whether taking 100 mg of a new nootropic supplement versus an inert sugar pill improves scores on a standardized spatial reasoning test. Identify the IV and the DV.

• Independent Variable (IV): The supplement condition (active 100 mg nootropic vs. inert placebo pill).
• Dependent Variable (DV): The score achieved on the standardized spatial reasoning test.

Research Design Comparison: Contrast the methodological purposes of random sampling versus random assignment.

• Random sampling: Concerns selection from the population to ensure external validity (generalizability of results).
• Random assignment: Concerns allocation of selected participants into experimental or control conditions to eliminate systematic pre-existing group differences, ensuring internal validity.

Scenario: An experiment comparing two reading methods conducts Method A in a quiet room at 9:00 AM and Method B in a noisy room at 4:00 PM. Method A yields higher comprehension. Identify the confounding variables and explain their impact.

• Confounding variables: Room noise level and time of day (participant fatigue).
• Impact: They introduce alternative explanations, making it impossible to determine whether reading method or environmental/time differences caused the score discrepancy.

Scenario: An investigation notes that hours of aerobic exercise correlate with depressive symptoms at $r = -0.58$, while perceived social support correlates with life satisfaction at $r = +0.64$. Interpret both coefficients.

• $-0.58$ (Negative correlation): Greater hours of aerobic exercise are associated with fewer depressive symptoms (variables move in opposite directions).
• $+0.64$ (Positive correlation): Higher levels of perceived social support are associated with greater life satisfaction (variables move in the same direction).

Scenario: A depression inventory yields nearly identical numerical scores when administered to a patient across three consecutive days, but an expert panel confirms it only measures test anxiety. Assess its psychometric properties.

• Reliability: High (the measurement demonstrates strong consistency and stability across repeated testing).
• Validity: Low (the tool fails to measure the target construct it claims to assess).

Scenario: A social psychology experiment employs mild deception by telling participants a task evaluates perceptual speed when it actually measures conformity. Identify the two mandatory ethical protections governing this study.

• Informed consent: Participants must be broadly informed of procedures, potential risks, and their right to withdraw before agreeing.
• Debriefing: Researchers must disclose the true purpose, explain why deception was required, and address any distress immediately after participation.