Psychology 201 Final Exam

Define Psychology

The scientific study of mind and behavior

What do you learn through psychology?

critical thinking skills, become familiar with the scientific method, and recognize the complexity of behavior

What did matters of the mind used to be studied through?

Philosophy, art, and religion

What are the steps of the scientific method?

Observe / ask a question, research, create a hypothesis, experiment, analyze results, revise if needed

Objective

Not influenced by personal feelings or opinions in considering and representing facts

Subjective

Influenced by personal feelings or opinions

Who was Wilheim Wundt? What did he do?

The first person to be referred to as a psychologist. Believed in voluntarism, that people have free will and should know the intentions of a psychological experiment if they were participating

What did Edward Titchener do?

Developed structuralism, the focus on contents of mental processes rather than their function

Who was William James? What did he do?

The first American psychologist. One of the founders of Functionalism, or functional psychology

Who was Sigmund Freud? What did he do?

Father of Psychoanalysis. Focused on unlocking the unconscious mind to find what drove dysfunction

Who was Ivan Pavlov?

Researched Classical Conditioning. Known for Pavlov’s Dog experiments

Who was John Watson? What did he do?

Father of Behaviorism. Believed objective study of the mind was impossible, focused on external behavior and bringing it under control

Who was B.F. Skinner?

Researched Operant Conditioning. Studied how behavior is affected by its consequences. Invented the Operant Chamber, or “Skinner” Box

Who was Abraham Maslow?

Proposed the Hierarchy of Needs as a motivation for human behavior

Who was Carl Rogers?

Used client-centered approach to therapy

Who was Mamie Phipps Clark and Kenneth Clark?

Best known for their studies conducted on African American children and doll preference. Instrumental in the Brown v. Board of Education desegregation case

Who was Mary Whiton Calkins?

Harvard University refused to award her a PhD in psychology because she was a woman, though she completed all requirements. Taught and mentored by William James, who tried to convince Harvard to award her the doctoral degree

What is voluntarism?

People have free will and should know the intentions of a psychological experiment if they were participating

What is structuralism?

Focuses on the contents of mental processes rather than their function—-explored the WHAT of mental processes

What is Functionalism?

Teaches that mental activities serve as adaptive responses to an organism’s environment—-explored the WHY of mental processes

What is Introspection?

The process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively possible (comparable to naturalistic observation)—-though meant to be objective, it was always highly subjective

What is Psychoanalysis?

The unconscious mind is critical to understand conscious behavior and focused less on unobservant mental processes—-dream analysis, slips of the tongue (Freudian Slip), and free association as means to access the unconscious

What is Client-Centered Therapy?

Involves the patient, rather than the therapist, taking the lead role in the therapy session. Utilizes Unconditional Positive Reward, genuineness, and empathy—-believes that clients are capable of solving their own problems

What are Clinical or Case Studies?

Focus on one person or just a few individuals and gather as much information about them as possible. Can give rich information and allows researcher to have a very deep understanding of the individuals and the phenomenon to be studied. The potential to apply what’s learned to the average person is limited—-Freud’s theories largely based on these studies

What is Naturalistic Observation?

Witnessing a person, phenomenon, or whatever is being studied in its natural environment. Benefit is the validity, or accuracy, of information unobtrusively in a natural setting

What is a survey?

Lists of questions to be answered by research participants. Can be questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally—-responders may not always give accurate or truthful info, difficult to get participation

What is Archival Research?

Looks at existing records or data sets to look for interesting patterns or relationships. Can involve access to large amounts of data without interacting with a single research participants. Requires time and money to complete

What is Longitudinal Research?

Allows us to see how people or phenomena change over time. Data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time. Attrition, or reduction in the number of research participants due to dropouts, is a significant downside

What is Correlation?

A relationship between two or more variables
Does not necessarily imply cause and effect

What is the Correlation Coefficient?

A number from -1 to +1 that indicated the strength and direction of the relationship between variables

The closer the number is to 1 (negative or positive), the more strongly related the variables are, and the more predictable changes in one variable will be as the other variable changes
The closer the number is to 0, the weaker the relationship, and the less predictable the relationships between the variables become

What is Positive Correlation?

Variables move in the same direction—-as one variable increases or decreases, so does the other

What is Negative Correlation?

Variables move in opposite directions—-a decrease in one variable is associated with an increase in the other and vice virsa

What is the Experimental Group?

Receives the manipulated variable

What is the Control Group?

Receives nothing, or a placebo

What is Operationalizing?

Provides a precise description of our variables—-important in allowing others to understands exactly how and what a researcher measures in a particular experiment, and helps with repeating the experiment and increasing inter-observer reliability

What is a Single-Blind Study?

Participants don’t know which group they are in, but researcher does

What is a Double-Blind Study?

Neither the researcher nor the participants know which group is receiving the treatment—-this is held by a neutral third party

What is a Placebo?

A Placebo is an innocuous or “pretend” treatment given to the control group

What is a Placebo Effect?

Participants’ expectations influence their results—-they receive an intended effect even though they did not receive the treatment

What is the Independent Variable?

It is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter

The only important difference between the experimental and control groups

Can be called the treatment or the manipulated variable

What is the Dependent Variable?

What the researcher measured to see how much effect the treatment had

Depends on whether the treatment had an effect

What makes good research?

It is ethical in nature and is guided by basic respect for human dignity and safety

What is the Institutional Review Board?

A committee of individuals often made up of members of the institution’s administration, scientists, and community members

Reviews proposals for research that involves human participants

Generally, approval from the IRB is required in order for the experiment to proceed

What is Informed Consent?

Provides a written description of what participants can expect during the experiment, including the potential risks and implications of research

Also lets participants know that their involvement is completely voluntary and can be discontinued without penalty at any time

What is Biopsychology?

Explores the biological mechanisms that underline behavior

Includes:

• Genetics

• The structure and function of the nervous system

• How the nervous system interacts with the endocrine system

What is Genetics?

Focusing on how inherited genes can affect not just the physiological, but psychological traits of a person

What is Genetic Variation?

The genetic difference between individuals

Contributes to a species’ adaptation to its environment

How does reproduction begin?

When an egg, containing 23 chromosomes, is fertilized by a sperm, containing 23 chromosomes

What is a chromosome?

A long strand of DNA

What is DNA?

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a helix-shaped molecule made of nucleotide base pairs

In each chromosome, sequences of DNA make up genes

What is Gene?

A sequence of DNA that controls or partially controls physical characteristics knows as traits (eye color, hair color, etc.)

May have multiple possible variations or alleles (a specific version of a gene)

What is a Genotype?

The genetic makeup of an individual based on the genetic material (DNA) inherited from one’s parents

What are Polygenic Traits?

When a majority of inheritable traits are controlled by more than just one gene

What is the difference between a Dominant allele and a Recessive allele?

Possession of a dominant allele will always result in expression of the phenotype. This could be inherited from one parent (Aa) or both parents (AA)

The phenotype of a recessive allele will only be physically expressed if the person is homozygous for that allele, meaning they inherited a recessive allele from BOTH parents (AA/aa)

What is Heterozygous?

Consisting of two different alleles (Aa)

What is Homozygous?

Consisting of two identical alleles (AA/aa)

What is a Punnett square?

A tool used to predict how genes will interact in the production of offspring

The capital letter represents the dominant allele, and the lowercase letter represents the recessive allele

What are Neurons?

The central building blocks of the nervous system

The semi-permeable membrane allows smaller molecules or molecules w/o an electric charge to pass through it, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules

Incoming electrical signals from other neurons are received by the dendrites which then send the signal down the axon

What are Nodes of Ranvier?

Gaps in the myelin sheath of a neuron

Nerve impulses “jump” from gap to gap through Saltatory conduction

What is the Synaptic Cleft

The small space between two neurons where communication between neurons occurs

What are Receptors

Proteins on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach, which different shapes “matching” different neurotransmitters

What is Depolarization?

Membrane potential becomes less negative making the neuron more likely to fire (excitation)

What is Hyperpolarization?

Membrane potential becomes more negative making the neuron less likely to fire (inhibition)

What is Threshold of excitation?

The level of charge in the membrane that causes the neuron to become active

What is Action Potential?

An electrical signal

Acts on an all-or-nothing principle - the incoming signal is either sufficient to reach the threshold of excitation, or it is not

What is Reuptake?

Involves moving a neurotransmitter from the synapse back into the axon terminal from which it was released

Name 5 neurotransmitters

1. Acetylcholine — muscle action and memory

2. Beta-endorphin — pain and pleasure

3. Dopamine — mood, sleep, learning

4. Norepinephrine — heart, intestines, alertness

   1. Serotonin — mood and sleep

What is Psychotropic medication?

Drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance

What is an Agonist?

A drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter

What is an Antagonist?

A drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter

What is the Central Nervous System (CNS)?

The brain and spinal cord

What is the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)? What Are its two parts?

Connects the CNS to the rest of the body

Somatic nervous system - relays sensory and motor info to and from the CNS

Automatic nervous system - controls internal organs and glands

What are the two parts of the Automatic Nervous System?

Sympathetic nervous system - involved in stress-related activities and functions; prepares us for fight or flight (fight or flight response allows access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity to fight off a threat or run away to safety)

Parasympathetic nervous system - associated with routine, day-today operations of the body under relaxed conditions (rest and restore response - relaxes the body after fight or flight, also called rest and digest)

What is Homeostasis? What works to cause it?

A state of equilibrium in the body

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems compliment each other to maintain homeostasis

What is Lateralization?

Concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions

Left hemisphere → right side of the body

Right hemisphere → left side of the body

What is the Corpus Callosum?

Connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain

What is the forebrain? What does it contain?

Largest part of the brain

Cerebral Cortex - higher level processes

Thalamus - sensory relay

Hypothalamus- homeostasis

Pituitary gland - master gland of the endocrine system

Limbic system - emotion and memory circut

What is the Cerebral cortex?

Surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, and memory

Can be broken into four lobes, each with a specific function

What is the Frontal Lobe?

Involved in executive functioning (planning, organization, judgement, attention, reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language)

Key example: Phineas Gage and his railroad accident

What is the Parietal Lobe?

Involved in processing various sensory and perceptual information

What is the Temporal Lobe?

Associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language

What is the Occipital Lobe?

Associated with visual processing?

What is the Thalamus?

Relay center of the brain where most senses (excluding smell) are routed before being directed to other areas of the brain for processing

What is the Limbic System? What is it composed of?

Involved in mediating emotional response and memory

Amygdala - experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to our memories. Involved in processing fear

Hippocampus - associated with learning and memory (in particular spatial memory)

Hypothalamus - regulates homeostatic processes including body temperature, appetite, and blood pressure

What does the Hindbrain consist of?

The brain stem

What is the Endocrine system?

A series of glands that produce hormones to regulate normal body functions

What does the Hypothalamus do?

Links the nervous system and endocrine system by controlling the pituitary gland

Name the different glands, their associated hormones, and their function

Pituitary - growth hormone, releasing and inhibiting hormones (such as thyroid stimulating hormone) ~ regulate growth, regulate hormone release

Thyroid - thyroxine, triiodothyronine ~ regulate metabolism and appetite

Pineal - melatonin ~ regulate biological rhythms such as sleep cycles

Adrenal - epinephrine, norepinephrine ~ stress response, increase metabolic activities

Pancreas - insulin, glucagon ~ regulate blood sugar levels

Ovaries - estrogen, progesterone ~ mediate sexual motivation and behavior, reproduction

Testes - androgens, such as testosterone ~ mediate sexual motivation and behavior, reproduction

What is consciousness?

Awareness of internal and external stimuli such as feelings of hunger and pain or detection of light

What is Wakefulness?

High levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior

What is a biological rhythm?

An internal cycle of biological activity including: fluctuation of body temp, an individual’s menstrual cycle, and levels of hunger

What is a Circadian rhythm?

Biological rhythm that occurs over approximately 24 hours

Generated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus

The sleep-wake cycle (main circadian rhythm) is linked to our environment’s natural light-dark cycle

What is the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)?

Located in the hypothalamus, serves as the brain’s biological clock mechanism

What is the hypothalamus responsible for?

Responsible for maintaining homeostasis, the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system

What is sleep regulation?

The brain’s control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world

An individual’s circadian pattern of activity is known as a person’s chronotype

Recommended sleep times

0-3 months → 14-17 hours

4-11 months → 12-15 hours

1-2 years → 11-14 hours

3-5 years → 10-13 hours

6-13 years → 9-11 hours

14-17 years → 8-10 hours

18-25 years → 7-9 hours

26-64 years → 7-9 hours

>65 years → 7-8 hours

What are the types of brain waves during sleep?

Alpha - relatively low frequency, relatively high amplitude, synchronized (Sleep stage 1)

Theta - low frequency, low amplitude (Sleep stage 2)

Delta - low frequency, high amplitude, desynchronized (Sleep stages 3 and 4)

What are some theories on dreams?

Sigmund Freud - Saw dreams as a way to gain access to the unconscious

• manifest content - the actual content of the dream

• latent content - the hidden meaning of the dream

Carl Jung - Believed that dreams allow us to tap into the collective unconscious

• collective unconscious- theoretical repository of info shared by all people across cultures

• believed that certain symbols in dreams reflected universal archetypes

Research -

1. Dreams may represent life events that are important to the dreamer

2. Dreaming may represent a state of protoconsciousness, or a virtual reality, in the mind that helps a person during consciousness

What are Lucid dreams?

Certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dream state - a person becomes aware that they’re dreaming

What is insomnia?

Defined by difficulty falling or staying asleep - for at least 3 nights a week for at least one month’s time

Most common sleep disorder