Ch 3 Congress

Basic Duties of Congress

legislative branch of the federal government. Its main responsibilities include making laws, representing constituents, approving federal spending, overseeing the executive branch, and exercising other constitutional powers.

Bicameralism

A legislature with two chambers

House of Representatives

The lower chamber of Congress, with 435 voting members apportioned among the states based on population.

• Members serve two-year terms.

• Representatives must be at least 25 years old.

• They must have been U.S. citizens for at least seven years.

• Revenue bills must originate in the House.

• The House has the sole power of impeachment.

Senate

The upper chamber of Congress, with 100 senators, two from each state.

• Senators serve six-year terms.

• Senators must be at least 30 years old.

• They must have been U.S. citizens for at least nine years.

• The Senate confirms many presidential appointments.

• The Senate provides advice and consent to treaties.

• The Senate conducts impeachment trials.

Formal powers of Congress

Powers explicitly granted to Congress by the Constitution.

These include taxation, borrowing money, regulating interstate commerce, declaring war, appropriating money, and making laws necessary and proper to execute federal powers.

Impeachment power

Congress's authority to accuse and potentially remove certain federal officials for constitutionally specified misconduct.

The House impeaches by a simple majority, and the Senate conducts the trial. Conviction requires a two-thirds vote of senators present.

Presidential systems

Systems in which the president and legislature have separate institutional authority and normally serve independently determined terms.

Speaker of the House

The House's presiding officer and principal leader, chosen by the House.

The Speaker plays an important role in House organization, leadership, and the legislative agenda.

President Pro Tempore

A senator elected to preside over the Senate when the vice president is absent.

Traditionally, the position is held by the longest-serving senator from the majority party.

Majority Leader

The leader of the party holding the most seats in a chamber.

The Senate majority leader has especially significant control over the Senate's legislative schedule.

Minority leader

The leader of the party holding fewer seats than the majority party in a chamber.

Majority Whip

A party leader who helps count votes, communicate party positions, and encourage majority-party members to support legislation.

Minority Whip

A party leader who performs vote-counting and party coordination for the minority party.

Whip System

The network of party leaders and members who track votes, communicate party strategy, and encourage party discipline.

Democratic Caucus

The organization of Democratic members within a congressional chamber that helps select party leaders and coordinate party strategy.

Republican Conference

The organization of Republican members within a congressional chamber that helps choose leaders and coordinate party priorities.

Caucus and Conference

Organized meetings or groups of legislators who coordinate around party affiliation or shared policy interests.

Party unity

The degree to which members of the same political party vote together.

Party vote

A congressional vote characterized by strong differences in support between political parties.

Committee system

The organization of congressional work into smaller groups that specialize in particular policy areas.

Committee types

The major categories of congressional committees, including standing, select, joint, and conference committees.

Standing committees

Permanent committees responsible for particular policy areas.

Select committees

Committees established for a specific investigation, issue, or purpose, sometimes for a limited period.

Joint committees

Committees containing members from both the House and Senate.

Conference committees

Temporary committees formed to reconcile differences between House-passed and Senate-passed versions of legislation.

Subcommittees

Smaller groups within committees that handle more specialized work.

Committee chairs

Members who lead congressional committees, usually selected from the majority party.

Ranking member

The most senior minority-party member of a committee under its organizational rules.

Seniority

The amount of time a legislator has served in Congress or on a particular committee.

Seniority system

A system that gives greater influence or priority to members with longer service, historically especially in committee leadership.

Markup

The process in which a congressional committee debates, revises, and votes on proposed legislation.

Committee on Rules (Rules Committee)

The House committee that helps determine how and under what conditions legislation will be debated on the House floor.

How a bill becomes a law

1. Bill introduced

A member introduces proposed legislation

2. Committee consideration

Hearings, possible markup, and committee action

3. Floor consideration

Debate, possible amendments, and voting

4. Both chambers approve identical text

Differences must be resolved before final passage

5. Presidential action

Signature, veto, or other constitutionally specified outcome

Open rule

Generally allows germane floor amendments under ordinary House procedures

Restricted Rule

Allows only specified or limited amendments

Closed rule

Does not permit floor amendments

Discharge petition

A House procedure that can bring a measure out of committee and toward floor consideration without the committee's approval, if procedural requirements are satisfied.

Roll call vote

A vote in which individual legislators' positions are recorded.

Omnibus legislation

A large bill combining multiple measures or subjects into one legislative package.

Continuing resolutions

Temporary funding measures that allow federal agencies to continue operating when regular appropriations have not been enacted.

Pocket veto

A presidential veto that occurs when the president does not sign a bill within the constitutional ten-day period, excluding Sundays, and Congress's adjournment prevents the bill from being returned.

Signing statements

Written statements presidents issue when signing legislation, sometimes explaining their interpretation of a law or how they intend to administer it.

Filibuster

A Senate tactic that delays or blocks action on legislation or other matters by extending debate or using procedural obstacles.

Cloture

A Senate procedure used to limit further debate and move toward a final vote.

For most legislation, invoking cloture requires three-fifths of the full Senate, normally 60 votes.

Hold

An informal Senate practice in which a senator communicates an objection or request to delay consideration of a measure or nomination.

Unanimous consent agreements

Agreements allowing the Senate to conduct business under negotiated procedures when no senator objects.

Gridlock

A situation in which political disagreement or institutional obstacles prevent government from taking action.

Representation and constituents

People who live in an elected official's district or state and are represented by that official.

Delegate

A model of representation in which legislators follow their constituents' preferences.

Trustee

A model of representation in which legislators use their own judgment to decide what is best, even if constituents disagree.

Politico

A model in which a legislator switches between acting as a delegate and a trustee depending on the issue or circumstances.

Descriptive representation

Representation based on a legislator sharing demographic or social characteristics with constituents.

Substantive representation

Representation based on advocating for the interests and policy preferences of constituents.

Casework

Assistance congressional offices provide to constituents dealing with federal agencies or government services.

Franking privilege

The ability of members of Congress to send certain official communications to constituents using government-funded mailing privileges, subject to restrictions.

Electoral connection

The relationship between legislators' behavior and their desire to win reelection.

Incumbent

Someone who currently holds an elected office.

Incumbency advantage

The electoral advantages current officeholders often enjoy over challengers.

These can include name recognition, fundraising connections, constituent services, and public visibility.

Permanent campaign

The tendency of elected officials to engage in continuous political messaging, fundraising, and reelection preparation while governing.

Presidential coattails

The influence a presidential candidate's popularity can have on candidates from the same party running for other offices.

Ticket splitting

Voting for candidates from different political parties in the same election.

Reapportionment

Redistributing House seats among states based on population changes after the census.

Apportionment

Determining how many House seats each state receives.

Redistricting

Redrawing electoral district boundaries within a state

Gerrymandering

Drawing electoral district boundaries to benefit a political party or group.

Packing

Concentrating many voters from an opposing party or group into a small number of districts.

Cracking

Dividing a group of voters across multiple districts to weaken their voting influence.

Minority-majority districts

Electoral districts in which members of a racial or ethnic minority group constitute a majority of the district's population or relevant voting population.

Safe district

An electoral district where one party has such a strong advantage that its candidate is very likely to win.

Logrolling

Legislators exchanging support for each other's proposals.

Pork barrel projects

Government spending directed toward particular districts or local areas, often to provide benefits to constituents and political credit to legislators.

Earmarks

Provisions directing funds toward specified projects, recipients, or locations.

Legislative oversight

Congress monitoring, investigating, and evaluating the executive branch and federal agencies.

Censure

A formal expression of disapproval of a legislator's conduct.