Sociological Research Methods, Social Influence, and Stratification

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering sociological research methods, validity and reliability, conformity, obedience, collective behavior, social movements, and social stratification based on lecture notes.

Deduction

The quantitative research process of testing theories about the social world by starting with a general theory, collecting data to test it, and examining the results.

Hypothesis

A prediction of a specific relationship between variables based on an existing theory, rather than a mere guess.

Variable

A concept that has attributes that vary across the units being studied, such as gender, income, or happiness.

Correlation

A pattern where two variables vary together, which does not by itself prove that one variable causes the other.

Independent Variable

The variable proposed as the cause of variation in another variable.

Dependent Variable

The outcome variable that is hypothesized to depend on or be caused by the independent variable.

Operationalization

The specification of exactly how a variable will be measured in a particular study.

Index

A composite measure created by combining multiple items, such as combining education and household income to measure socioeconomic class.

Theoretical Measures

Variables and measurements that are directly tied to and derived from a specific theory.

Atheoretical Measures

Measurements that are not directly relevant to or tied to a particular theory.

Survey

A quantitative research method that measures variables by asking structured questions in a predetermined order across various mediums.

Priming (Question Order Effect)

The influence an earlier survey question exerts on how a respondent interprets and answers a subsequent question.

Population

The complete group of individuals that a researcher aims to describe and generalize about.

Sample

The specific group of people from whom data are actually collected in an experiment or study.

Experiment

A quantitative research design that tests whether an independent variable causes a dependent variable through manipulation and random assignment across groups.

Laboratory Experiment

An experimental study conducted in an artificial setting that provides high control over conditions but may limit generalizability.

Field Experiment

An experimental study conducted outside the laboratory in a natural environment, characterized by less control but a less artificial setting.

Internal Validity

The degree of accuracy regarding whether an independent variable causally relates to the dependent variable without being confounded.

External Validity

The extent to which research findings can be generalized beyond the specific sample and setting of the study.

Reliability

The consistency of research methods and measurements, determining whether other researchers can replicate the findings.

Non-Spuriousness

A necessary condition for causality requiring that an apparent relationship between two variables is not produced by a third, unaccounted-for variable.

Induction

A qualitative research process that reasons from specific empirical observations and data toward general theory.

Grounded Theory

A qualitative approach where theoretical concepts and frameworks are developed inductively from data rather than testing a preexisting hypothesis.

Participant Observation

A qualitative research method that combines observing social behavior in its natural setting while actively participating in the setting.

Covert Observation

An observational research method in which participants are unaware that they are being observed by a researcher.

Overt Observation

An observational research method in which the researcher openly discloses their identity and purpose to the participants.

Snowball Sampling

A non-probability sampling technique where researchers establish contact with initial informants, who then refer them to additional participants.

Available Data

Pre-existing data collected by another party or organization that a secondary researcher analyzes.

Archival Research

The systematic analysis of existing historical documents and records maintained by governments or other institutions.

Content Analysis

The systematic examination of communication materials, such as newspapers, books, television, films, or social media posts.

Positionality

A researcher's social position in relation to others, including how their identities, power, and privilege shape the research process.

Reflexivity

The practice of critically examining how a researcher's own positionality influences data collection, interpretation, and personal reactions to data.

Social Influence

The capacity of individuals or groups to alter the behaviors, attitudes, and perceptions of others.

Compliance

A behavioral or cognitive response where an individual agrees to and carries out a request from another person.

Cognitive Compliance

A form of compliance involving getting an individual to verbalize or alter an internal thought rather than only changing their outward action.

Obedience

The act of following explicit directions or commands issued by an authority figure.

Conformity

The tendency of individuals to adjust their behavior, beliefs, or perceptions to match group norms or expectations.

Normative Influence

Social influence where individuals alter their public behavior to fit in and avoid social rejection, without changing private beliefs.

Informational Influence

Social influence where individuals accept information from others as valid evidence about reality, altering their private understanding and beliefs.

Collective Behavior

Spontaneous, aggregate behavior by groups that departs from established, routine societal patterns.

Fashions

Cyclical rises and falls in the widespread popularity of specific styles or products, such as clothing or music.

Fads

Episodic, short-lived novelties that rapidly gain extreme popularity among a group and then fade quickly.

Rumors

Widespread, unverified pieces of information or claims about people or significant issues that circulate as a form of public opinion.

Legends

Extended, narrative-driven claims circulated as true accounts that reflect deeper social themes and anxieties.

Urban Legends

Contemporary narrative folklore concerning modern institutions or behaviors that embodies and reflects social fears.

Conspiracy Theories

Elaborate belief systems explaining major social events or suffering as the deliberate outcome of secret actions by powerful groups.

Mass Hysteria

A form of collective behavior involving widespread, irrational, and emotionally heightened unconventional fears across a group.

Panic

A collective departure from ordinary patterns of action where people react to an acute perceived threat in an effort to protect themselves.

Somatoform Epidemics

Outbreaks where members of a group exhibit genuine physical symptoms originating from psychological and social stress rather than organic illness.

Social Movement

A collective body of individuals organized to promote or resist social and cultural change within their society or group.

Social Identity Theory

A theoretical framework proposing that individuals define themselves through group memberships, forming an us-versus-them categorization.

Free-Rider Problem

A collective action dilemma where individuals enjoy the public benefits secured by a movement or group without contributing to the efforts.

Social Stratification

The institutionalized ranking of individuals and groups into hierarchical layers based on social categories like class, race, and gender.

Doing Gender

A continuous, interactional accomplishment wherein individuals actively produce and maintain gender through routine everyday behaviors.

Doing Difference

The interactional process through which various interlocking inequalities, such as race, class, and gender, are continuously produced and reinforced.

Intersectionality

A conceptual framework demonstrating that multiple social identities and systems of inequality intersect to produce unique, non-additive experiences.

Status-Attainment Model

A sociological framework that models how parental background, mental ability, educational aspirations, and schooling predict ultimate socioeconomic standing.

Status Characteristics

Categorical attributes that denote membership in socially evaluated groups and trigger differential expectations of competence in interactions.

Diffuse Status Characteristics

Broad social attributes, such as race or gender, that carry generalized expectations of competence across many unrelated social situations.

Specific Status Characteristics

Attributes that create expectations of skill and competence within a distinct, narrowly defined task or performance domain.

Status Generalization

The process by which status advantages and disadvantages from wider society are imported into small-group settings to influence performance expectations.

Power

A structural and relational position enabling an individual to reward compliance or enforce punishment upon others.

Looksmaxxing

An online subculture and set of practices centered on maximizing physical attractiveness through methods spanning grooming to extreme body modification.