Learn: Intro to Psych - Exam 1 Review

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Objective/external lens

Understanding behavior by focusing on observable, measurable actions from outside the individual.

Subjective/internal lens

Understanding behavior by focusing on internal experiences such as thoughts, feelings, and perceptions.

Psychoanalytic theory — "father"

Sigmund Freud.

Behaviorism — "father"

John B. Watson.

Humanistic psychology — major founders

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Biopsychosocial model

Explains behavior and disorders using biological, psychological, and social factors together.

Biological lens

Looks at biological causes such as genetics, brain activity, hormones, or nervous-system functioning.

Psychological lens

Looks at thoughts, emotions, learning, personality, and other psychological factors.

Social lens

Looks at relationships, culture, environment, and other social influences.

Basic research

Research conducted primarily to increase knowledge and understanding rather than immediately solve a practical problem.

Applied research

Research designed to address a specific practical problem or real-world issue.

Scientific method

A systematic process used to ask questions, develop hypotheses, collect evidence, and draw conclusions.

Operational definition

A precise description of how a variable or concept will be measured or observed in a study.

Why are operational definitions useful?

They make abstract concepts measurable and allow researchers to clearly replicate a study.

Theory

An organized explanation of observations and findings that can be tested and modified as new evidence becomes available.

Four goals of science

Describe, predict, explain, and control/influence behavior or events.

Research ethics

Rules designed to protect research participants and ensure research is conducted responsibly.

IRB

Institutional Review Board; reviews and approves research involving human participants at research institutions.

Therapy ethics

Ethical standards that protect clients, including confidentiality, informed consent, professional competence, and avoiding harm.

Descriptive research

Research that describes behavior or characteristics without determining cause and effect.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in its natural environment without manipulating the situation.

Case study

An intensive examination of one individual, group, or situation.

Survey

Collecting information by asking people questions about their attitudes, behaviors, or experiences.

Archival research

Studying existing records or documents to investigate behavior.

Correlational research

Research examining the relationship between two or more variables.

Positive correlation

As one variable increases, the other tends to increase.

Negative correlation

As one variable increases, the other tends to decrease.

Zero correlation

No consistent relationship between two variables.

Correlation coefficient

A number indicating the direction and strength of a correlation, generally ranging from -1 to +1.

Major limitation of correlation

Correlation does not establish causation.

Major limitation of descriptive research

It describes behavior but generally cannot determine cause and effect.

Experiment

A research method in which researchers manipulate a variable and measure its effects while controlling other factors.

Three characteristics of an experiment

Manipulation of an independent variable, measurement of a dependent variable, and control of other variables.

Independent variable (IV)

The variable that the researcher manipulates.

Dependent variable (DV)

The variable that the researcher measures to determine the effect of the IV.

Random assignment

Randomly placing participants into different groups so that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to a group.

Confounding variable

An unwanted variable that could affect the results and provide an alternative explanation for the findings.

Sample bias

When the participants selected for a study do not adequately represent the population being studied.

Participant bias

When participants' behavior or responses are influenced by their expectations or awareness of the study.

Experimenter bias

When a researcher's expectations unintentionally influence the study or its results.

Ethnocentrism

Judging another culture using the standards and values of one's own culture.

How can bias be reduced?

Use representative samples, standardized procedures, random assignment, and single- or double-blind procedures when appropriate.

Single-blind study

Participants or researchers are unaware of certain group assignments to reduce bias.

Double-blind study

Both participants and researchers who interact with them are unaware of group assignments.

Why use a double-blind study?

To reduce both participant expectations and experimenter bias.

Quasi-experimental design

A design that resembles an experiment but lacks full random assignment or another key feature required for a true experiment.

SQ4R

A study/reading strategy involving Survey, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, and Review.

Neuron

A specialized cell that communicates information through electrical and chemical signals.

Glial cells

Cells that support, protect, nourish, and assist neurons.

Dendrites

Branch-like structures that receive information from other neurons or sensory receptors.

Cell body (soma)

Contains the nucleus and maintains the neuron's basic functions.

Axon

Carries neural signals away from the cell body.

Myelin sheath

Insulating covering around some axons that helps neural signals travel more efficiently.

Axon terminals

End points of an axon where neurotransmitters are released.

Electrical communication

Communication involving electrical activity traveling within a neuron.

Chemical communication

Communication between neurons involving neurotransmitters released into the synapse.

Synapse

The junction or gap between communicating neurons.

Neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger released by one neuron that affects another neuron, muscle, or gland.

What happens after neurotransmitters do their job?

They may be taken back up, broken down, or otherwise cleared from the synapse.

Agonist

A drug or substance that increases or mimics the effects of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A drug or substance that decreases or blocks the effects of a neurotransmitter.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in functions including movement, motivation, reward, and learning.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter involved in functions including mood, sleep, and other regulatory processes.

Endocrine system

A system of glands that releases hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Chemical messengers released by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream and affect target cells.

Hormones vs. neurotransmitters

Hormones generally travel through the bloodstream and tend to act more slowly and broadly; neurotransmitters act across synapses and generally act more quickly and locally.

Neuroplasticity

The nervous system's ability to change its structure or functioning in response to experience, learning, or injury.

Neurogenesis

The creation of new neurons.

Stem cells

Undifferentiated cells capable of developing into different types of specialized cells.

Reflex

A rapid, automatic response to a stimulus.

CNS

Central nervous system; the brain and spinal cord.

PNS

Peripheral nervous system; nerves and structures outside the brain and spinal cord.

Somatic nervous system

Part of the PNS involved in voluntary movement and communication with sensory receptors.

Autonomic nervous system

Part of the PNS that regulates involuntary functions of organs and glands.

Sympathetic nervous system

Activates the body's arousal or "fight-or-flight" response.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Promotes rest, recovery, and conservation of energy.

Three primary divisions of the brain

Hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain.

Hindbrain

Contains structures involved in basic life functions, movement, and coordination.

Midbrain

Involved in functions including movement, sensory processing, and arousal.

Forebrain

Contains major structures involved in higher mental processes, emotion, motivation, and sensory processing.

Thalamus

A major relay station that routes much sensory information to appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex.

Limbic system

A group of interconnected structures involved in emotion, motivation, learning, and memory.

Cerebral cortex

The outer layer of the cerebrum involved in complex functions such as perception, language, thinking, and voluntary movement.

Cerebral cortex and intelligence

Greater cortical development and more complex cortical functioning are associated with higher cognitive abilities.

Frontal lobes

Located at the front of the brain; involved in planning, decision-making, voluntary movement, problem solving, and aspects of personality and behavior.

Phineas Gage

A railroad worker who survived severe damage to his frontal brain; his case provided important evidence that particular brain regions contribute to personality and behavior.

Parietal lobes

Located behind the frontal lobes; involved in processing bodily sensations and spatial information.

Temporal lobes

Located on the sides of the brain; involved in hearing, language, memory, and other functions.

Occipital lobes

Located at the back of the brain; primarily involved in visual processing.

Association areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex involved in integrating information and supporting complex functions rather than directly controlling basic sensory or motor functions.

Corpus callosum

A large bundle of nerve fibers connecting the brain's left and right hemispheres.