Biological Psychology, Genetics, and the Nervous System

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering biological psychology, genetics, neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, psychoactive substances, and brain anatomy.

Nature

Genetic influences on behavior.

Evolutionary Perspective

Environmental influences on behavior.

Natural Selection

Traits that help organisms survive and reproduce are more likely to be passed down.

Behavior Genetics

Studies how genes and the environment influence behavioral differences.

Mutations

Random changes in DNA that can create new genetic variations.

Environment

Everything outside of our genes that influences us.

Heredity

Traits passed from parents to children through genes.

Genes

Units of DNA that carry hereditary information.

Genome

All of an organism's genetic material.

Nurture

Environmental influences on behavior.

Eugenics

The discredited movement that attempted to control human reproduction to influence inherited traits.

Identical (Monozygotic) Twins

Develop from one fertilized egg and share nearly $100\%$ of their DNA.

Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins

Develop from two separate fertilized eggs and share about $50\%$ of their DNA on average.

Interaction

The way nature and nurture work together.

Epigenetics

The study of how environmental factors can affect gene expression without changing the DNA sequence itself.

Nervous System

The body's network of neurons that sends and receives information.

Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord.

Nerves

Bundles of neuron fibers that carry information throughout the body.

Reflex

An automatic response to a stimulus.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary body functions, such as heartbeat, digestion, and breathing regulation.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Nervous system division that promotes fight or flight.

Peripheral Nervous System

All the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary movements and sends sensory information to the central nervous system (e.g., choosing to raise your hand).

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Nervous system division that promotes rest and digest.

Neurons

A nerve cell that receives and sends information.

Cell Body

Contains the nucleus and keeps the neuron alive.

Dendrites

Receive messages from other neurons.

Axon

Carries electrical signals away from the cell body.

Myelin

Fatty covering that insulates the axon and speeds up neural messages.

Synapse

The tiny gap between neurons where chemical communication occurs.

Glial Cells

Support, protect, and nourish neurons.

Reflex Arc

The neural pathway involved in an automatic response to a stimulus.

Sensory Neurons

Carry information from sensory receptors to the CNS (e.g., feeling something hot).

Motor Neurons

Carry instructions from the CNS to muscles and glands (e.g., moving your hand).

Interneurons

Connect neurons within the central nervous system (e.g., processing information in the spinal cord).

Action Potential

An electrical impulse that travels down the axon.

All-or-Nothing Principle

A neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.

Depolarization

The inside of the neuron becomes more positively charged as sodium ions enter.

Reuptake

The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitters from the synapse.

Multiple Sclerosis

The immune system damages myelin in the CNS, disrupting communication between neurons.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that travel across the synapse and communicate with the next neuron.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Increase the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, pleasure, movement, and learning.

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter involved in alertness, attention, and arousal.

GABA

The brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter; decreases neural activity.

Substance P

Neurotransmitter involved in transmitting pain signals.

Hormones

Chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream to target cells.

Leptin

Hormone that helps signal fullness and regulate energy balance.

Melatonin

Hormone that helps regulate the sleep-wake cycle.

Refractory Period

A short recovery period after a neuron fires when it cannot fire again normally.

Resting Potential

The electrical charge of a neuron when it is not firing; the inside is more negative than the outside (about $-70\,mV$).

Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation needed for a neuron to fire an action potential.

Myasthenia Gravis

An autoimmune disorder that interferes with communication between nerves and muscles, causing muscle weakness.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Decrease the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter involved in regulating mood, sleep, and appetite.

Glutamate

The brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in learning and memory.

Endorphins

Natural chemicals that reduce pain and can produce feelings of well-being.

Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, learning, and memory.

Endocrine System

A system of glands that releases hormones into the bloodstream.

Adrenaline

Hormone that prepares the body for fight-or-flight.

Ghrelin

Hormone that signals hunger.

Oxytocin

Hormone involved in social bonding, childbirth, and milk release.

Psychoactive Drugs

Chemicals that affect the brain and change consciousness or behavior.

Substance Use Disorder

A condition involving continued substance use despite significant negative consequences.

Antagonist

Blocks a neurotransmitter or prevents it from producing its usual effect.

Stimulants

Increase activity in the central nervous system.

Caffeine

Blocks adenosine receptors, increasing alertness.

Cocaine

Blocks reuptake of dopamine and other neurotransmitters.

Methamphetamines

Powerful stimulant drugs that increase activity in the central nervous system.

Ecstasy

A psychoactive drug that affects serotonin and other neurotransmitter systems.

Opioids

A class of drugs that act on opioid receptors and can reduce pain but also slow breathing.

Heroin

An opioid.

Addiction

A pattern of compulsive substance use despite harmful consequences.

Agonist

A substance that mimics or increases the effects of a neurotransmitter.

Reuptake Inhibitor

A substance that blocks the reabsorption of neurotransmitters, leaving more available in the synapse.

Barbiturates

Depressant drugs that slow activity in the central nervous system.

Depressants

Slow activity in the central nervous system.

Alcohol

A depressant that slows central nervous system activity and can impair judgment, memory, and coordination.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that alter perception, thoughts, and sensory experiences.

Near-Death Experience

An unusual experience reported by some people who come close to death or experience a life-threatening event.

Marijuana

A psychoactive substance in which THC affects cannabinoid receptors in the brain.

LSD

Affects serotonin receptors and alters perception.

Tolerance

When the brain and body become less responsive to a substance, so the same amount has less effect.

Withdrawal

Physical and psychological symptoms that can occur when someone who has developed dependence stops or reduces substance use.

Biological Psychology

Studies how biological processes influence behavior and mental processes.

Biopsychosocial Approach

Explains behavior through biological, psychological, and social factors.

Levels of Analysis

Different perspectives used to understand behavior.

Brain Plasticity (Neuroplasticity)

The brain's ability to change and reorganize through experience, learning, and recovery.

EEG

Records electrical activity in the brain.

MEG

Measures magnetic fields produced by brain activity.

MRI

Produces detailed images of brain structure.

CT

Uses X-rays to create images of brain structures.

PET

Shows metabolic activity using a radioactive tracer.

fMRI

Measures changes in blood oxygenation to estimate brain activity.

Lesions

Damaged or destroyed areas of brain tissue that can help researchers understand brain functions.

Brain Stem

Controls basic survival functions and connects the brain to the spinal cord.

Hindbrain

Lower region of the brain involved in basic survival and movement.

Midbrain

Brain region involved in movement, attention, and sensory processing.

Forebrain

Largest and most complex region of the brain; involved in thinking, emotion, and processing information.

Medulla Oblongata

Controls heartbeat and breathing.