Criminology Theories, Research Methods & Key Concepts

What is differential association theory?

Sutherland's theory that criminal behaviour is learned through interaction with others.

What do people learn through differential association?

Techniques of crime, motives, drives, attitudes, and definitions that support or oppose breaking the law.

Where does criminal learning occur most often?

Within intimate personal groups, such as friends, family, and close associates.

What are definitions favourable to crime?

Beliefs or attitudes that justify, approve of, or encourage breaking the law.

What are definitions unfavourable to crime?

Beliefs or attitudes that discourage lawbreaking and support following the law.

According to differential association theory, when is delinquency more likely?

When definitions favourable to violating the law outweigh definitions unfavourable to violating it.

What are the nine propositions of differential association theory?

Crime is learned; learned through interaction; mostly in intimate groups; learning includes techniques and motives; motives are shaped by definitions of law; favourable definitions outweigh unfavourable ones; associations vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity; criminal learning uses ordinary learning mechanisms; general needs and values alone do not explain crime.

What do frequency, duration, priority, and intensity mean in differential association?

Frequency is how often contact occurs; duration is how long it lasts; priority is how early it begins; intensity is the importance or influence of the relationship.

What is one strength of differential association theory?

It explains how criminal behaviour, techniques, motives, and attitudes can be learned socially.

What is one criticism of differential association theory?

It may not fully explain the excitement, thrill, or enjoyment some people experience from crime.

What is social learning theory?

A theory explaining behaviour through social associations, definitions, reinforcement, and imitation.

What are the four main components of social learning theory?

Differential associations, definitions, differential reinforcement, and imitation.

What is differential reinforcement?

The way rewards and punishments influence whether behaviour is repeated.

What is positive reinforcement?

Adding a desirable consequence to increase a behaviour.

What is negative reinforcement?

Removing an unpleasant consequence or stimulus to increase a behaviour.

What is positive punishment?

Adding an unpleasant consequence to decrease a behaviour.

What is negative punishment?

Removing a desirable thing or privilege to decrease a behaviour.

What is the easiest way to remember reinforcement versus punishment?

Reinforcement increases behaviour; punishment decreases behaviour.

What is the easiest way to remember positive versus negative in conditioning?

Positive means adding something; negative means removing something.

A person receives money after stealing and steals again. What concept does this illustrate?

Positive reinforcement, because a reward is added and the behaviour increases.

A person commits an offence to escape an unpleasant situation and repeats it. What concept might this illustrate?

Negative reinforcement, if the behaviour removes an unpleasant stimulus and therefore becomes more likely.

A person receives an extra penalty after breaking a rule. What concept might this illustrate?

Positive punishment, if adding the consequence reduces the behaviour.

A teenager loses gaming privileges after breaking a rule. What concept does this illustrate?

Negative punishment, because a desirable privilege is removed to reduce behaviour.

What is imitation in social learning theory?

Learning by observing and copying another person's behaviour.

According to the lecture, what role does imitation play?

It can help initiate a behaviour, but may be less useful for explaining its continued maintenance or stopping.

What are limitations of learning theories identified in the lecture?

They may not adequately explain the age-crime curve, gender differences, or turning points across the life course.

What is the age-crime curve?

The commonly observed pattern in which offending tends to rise during adolescence, peak in late adolescence or early adulthood, and decline with age.

What is a turning point in life-course criminology?

A life event or change in circumstances that redirects a person's pathway, potentially away from offending.

What is life-course theory concerned with?

How behaviour and development change over time through experiences, relationships, transitions, and turning points.

What is the main difference between differential association and social learning theory?

Differential association emphasizes learned associations and definitions; social learning theory also explicitly emphasizes reinforcement and imitation.

What is a key short-answer explanation of differential association theory?

People may learn criminal behaviour from close associates when they learn techniques and attitudes that make lawbreaking seem acceptable.

What is a key short-answer explanation of social learning theory?

Behaviour is influenced by social relationships, beliefs, consequences, and observing others.

What is the difference between criminology and criminal justice?

Criminology studies crime, its causes, patterns, and social responses; criminal justice focuses on the institutions and processes that respond to crime.

What is epistemology?

The study of knowledge, including how we know what we know and what counts as reliable evidence.

What is quantitative research?

Research using numerical data to measure patterns, relationships, or differences.

What is qualitative research?

Research using non-numerical information, such as interviews or observations, to understand experiences, meanings, and processes.

What is reliability in research?

The consistency of a measurement or research procedure.

What is validity in research?

Whether a measure or study accurately captures what it intends to measure or explain.

What is generalizability?

The extent to which findings from a study apply to other people, groups, settings, or populations.

What is the difference between evidence-based and evidence-informed practice?

Evidence-based practice emphasizes using the best available evidence; evidence-informed practice integrates evidence with professional judgement, context, and the experiences of affected people.

What is Two-Eyed Seeing?

An approach associated with Mi'kmaw Elder Albert Marshall that brings together the strengths of Indigenous knowledge systems and Western knowledge systems.

What is aggregation in crime statistics?

Combining individual crime records into summarized totals or categories.

What is mens rea?

The legally required mental element of an offence, such as intention or knowledge, depending on the offence.

What is biological determinism?

The view that biology determines behaviour; in criminology, strong deterministic claims are criticized for oversimplifying behaviour.

What is pseudoscience?

Claims presented as scientific that do not meet appropriate standards of evidence or scientific testing.

What is a key limitation of biological explanations of crime?

Biological factors may influence risk, but they do not alone determine criminal behaviour; environment and social circumstances also matter.