observations

define observations

a study that involves watching actual behaviours

naturalistic observation is..

watching and recording behaviour in the person's normal, everyday environment, without interfering

controlled observation is..

watching and recording behaviour in a controlled setting where the researcher controls some aspects of the situation

an example of naturalistic observation is..

watching children play in their normal school playground and recording how often they share toys

an example of a controlled observation is..

bringing children into a room and giving them specific toys, then recording how they behave

how does naturalistic observations have high ecological validity?

• behaviour is studied in a real-life setting, so the behaviour is more likely to reflect what people naturally do → findings may have greater real-world validity

name another strength of naturalistic observations

less demand characteristics

• participants may be less aware of what behaviour the researcher is looking for, especially if the observation is unobtrusive → they may behave more naturally

name the weaknesses of a naturalistic observation

less control

• researchers cannot control extraneous variables in a real-life environment

→ It is harder to establish cause and effect

difficult to replicate

• real-life situations constantly change, so another researcher may struggle to recreate exactly the same conditions

→ lower reliability

state the strengths for a controlled observation

greater control

• researchers can control aspects of the environment and reduce extraneous variables

→ Makes it easier to identify patterns in behaviour

more replicable

• because the procedure and environment can be standardised, another researcher can repeat the observation

→ Increases reliability

how do controlled observations have demand characteristics?

• participants may realise they are being observed or work out what the researcher is studying

→ they may change their behaviour

name another weakness of controlled observations

lower ecological validity

• the controlled setting may be artificial and unlike everyday life

→ participants may behave differently from how they normally would

define covert observations

participants are being watched without their knowledge and consent

define overt observations

participants are being watched with their knowledge and consent

how is there more natural behaviour in covert observations?

• because participants don't know they're being observed, they're less likely to change their behaviour

→ greater ecological validity

name one other strength of covert observations

less demand characteristics

• participants can't easily guess the aim or deliberately change their behaviour

which ethical issues may rise in a covert observation?

• participants cannot give informed consent because they don't know they're taking part

• it can also raise issues around privacy

name another weakness of covert observations

difficult to carry out

• researchers may have to hide their identity or equipment, which can be difficult and may create practical problems

give the strengths of an overt observation

ethical

• participants can give informed consent because they know they are being observed

• this also means they can understand what they're agreeing to

easier to carry out

• researchers don't need to secretly observe people or hide the purpose of the observation

how do overt observations exhibit observer effects?

• people may behave differently simply because they know someone is watching them

→ Their behaviour may not be representative of their normal behaviour.

name another weakness of overt observations

• participants know they're being observed, so they may change their behaviour

• this can make the findings less valid

define participant observations

the researcher observes the participants from within the group that they are observing

strengths + weaknesses of participant observations?

strengths

greater insight

• the researcher experiences the situation themselves, so they may understand the participants' behaviour more deeply

can observe behaviour that might otherwise be missed

• being part of the group can give the researcher access to natural interactions and information that an outsider might not see

weaknesses

researcher may lose objectivity

• because they're involved, they may become personally involved or biased when recording/interpreting behaviour

difficult to record behaviour

• the researcher has to participate and observe at the same time, which can make it harder to record everything accurately

define non-participant observations

the researcher observes the participants away from the group that they are observing

strengths + weaknesses of non participant observations

strengths

more objective

• the researcher isn't directly involved in the activity, so they may be less likely to become personally involved or biased

easier to record behaviour

• they can focus entirely on observing and recording rather than participating

weaknesses

less insight

• the researcher isn't experiencing the situation themselves, so they may have less understanding of participants' thoughts or experiences

may miss important behaviour

• some interactions may only happen when the researcher is part of the group, so they could miss them

define observational designs

the different ways researchers organise and record what they see during an observation

what are the 3 types?

behavioural categories + time + event sampling

what are behavioural categories?

• researchers divide behaviour into specific categories that can be observed and recorded.

e.g. studying aggression in children:

• Hitting

• Kicking

• Shouting

Why use it? makes observations more objective and systematic.

what is event sampling?

• researchers count how many times a particular behaviour happens during the observation.

e.g during a 30-minute observation, counting how many times a child:

• Hits someone = 4

• Shouts = 7

• Pushes = 2

every time the behaviour EVENT happens, count it

good for: behaviours that happen relatively frequently

what is time sampling

• researchers record behaviour at predetermined time intervals

e.g. every 2 minutes, the researcher records what the child is doing at that exact moment

check at certain TIMES

good for: observations where there is lots of behaviour happening and recording everything would be difficult

define inter-observer reliability

is the extent to which two or more observers agree when recording the same behaviour + success rate is 80%