Psychological Disorders and Models of Abnormality

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards reviewing psychological disorders, DSM-5 diagnostic criteria, cognitive distortions, and the major models of abnormality.

Dunedin study (Shaefer et al., 2017)

A longitudinal study showing that only 17% of participants reached mid-life free of any mental-health problems.

ABCs of depression

The three psychological domains impaired by depressive disorders: Affect (mood), Behaviour, and Cognitions (thoughts).

Major depressive episode

A DSM-5 diagnosed episode requiring at least two weeks of depressed mood or markedly diminished interest or pleasure, along with five or more specific symptoms that cause a change in functioning.

Persistent depressive disorder

A chronic depressive condition (formerly dysthymia in DSM-IV) featuring milder symptoms lasting at least 2 years, with no more than 2 months symptom-free.

Bipolar I disorder

A mood disorder characterized by alternating major depressive and full manic episodes.

Bipolar II disorder

A mood disorder characterized by hypomanic episodes and major depressive episodes without full manic episodes, which usually does not require hospitalisation.

Beck's negative triad

A cognitive model of depression consisting of interrelated negative automatic thoughts regarding The Self ("I'm ugly/worthless/a failure"), The World ("No one loves me"), and The Future ("I'm hopeless because things will always be this way").

All-or-nothing thinking

A cognitive distortion characterized by thinking of things in absolute terms, such as "always", "every", or "never".

Overgeneralization

A cognitive distortion involving taking isolated cases and using them to formulate broad, usually self-deprecating generalizations.

Mental filter

A cognitive distortion involving focusing exclusively on certain negative or upsetting aspects of an experience while completely ignoring the rest.

Disqualifying the positive

A cognitive distortion marked by continuously rejecting or shooting down positive experiences for arbitrary, ad hoc reasons.

Jumping to conclusions

A cognitive distortion characterized by assuming something negative when there is no supporting evidence.

Magnification and Minimization

A cognitive distortion wherein negative aspects are exaggerated and positive elements are understated, often understating one's own strengths while exaggerating others'.

Emotional reasoning

A cognitive distortion where decisions and arguments are formulated based on subjective emotional feelings rather than objective reality.

Making "should" statements

A cognitive distortion involving concentrating on what you think "should" or ought to be rather than addressing the actual situation faced.

Labeling

A cognitive distortion related to overgeneralization where a person explains by naming, assigning an absolute and unalterable label to themselves or others rather than describing the specific behaviour.

Personalization

A cognitive distortion where an individual assumes they or others directly caused an event when that may not have been the case.

Generalised anxiety disorder (GAD)

An anxiety disorder defined by excessive anxiety and worry occurring more days than not for at least 6 months about numerous everyday events, which the individual finds difficult to control.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

A trauma disorder resulting from exposure to an event involving the possibility of death or injury, producing responses of intense fear, helplessness, or horror.

PTSD symptom categories

The three core symptom clusters of PTSD: 1) re-experiencing the traumatic event, 2) avoidance of event-related stimuli or numbing of responsiveness, and 3) symptoms of increased arousal.

Learned helplessness

A behavioural phenomenon demonstrated by animals and humans who experience uncontrollable, repeated aversive stimulation and consequently stop making active attempts to avoid or escape future stress.

Psychodynamic / Relational model

A model of abnormality asserting that symptoms are defensive patterns stemming from early relationship experiences, unconscious processes, and expectations of rejection or failure.

Socio-cultural model

A model of abnormality examining how immediate environmental conditions, cultural meanings, institutions, and unequal access to resources shape psychological distress and coping.

Primary appraisal

The initial evaluation within the transactional theory of stress where an individual classifies an incoming stressor as irrelevant, benign, or stressful (harm/loss, threat, or challenge).

Secondary appraisal

The stage in the transactional model of stress where an individual evaluates their available coping mechanisms and resources to determine whether the outcome will result in positive stress or distress.

Transactional theory of stress and coping

A theoretical framework by Lazarus and Folkman (1984) proposing that stress is not a direct stimulus but an ongoing transaction between environmental demands and the person's cognitive appraisals and coping resources.

Diathesis-stress model

An integrative model proposing that psychological disorders manifest when an underlying predisposition or vulnerability (diathesis) combines with environmental stress to cross a critical threshold.

Manic episode

A distinct period of abnormally elevated, expansive, or irritable mood accompanied by increased goal-directed activity, grandiosity, and reduced sleep need, causing marked social/occupational impairment or requiring hospitalisation.

Hypomanic episode

A distinct period of persistently elevated or irritable mood lasting at least 4 days with at least 3 symptoms of mania, but not severe enough to cause marked impairment, psychotic symptoms, or hospitalisation.