AP Psychology Unit 1.1–1.5: Heredity, Nervous System, Brain & Sleep

What is heredity?

The passing down of genetic traits from parents to offspring.

Define environment in the context of development.

Non-genetic influences that impact development and behavior.

What is the nature vs. nurture debate?

A discussion on the degree to which genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) influence characteristics.

Give an example of a trait influenced by both genetics and environment.

Skin color, which is mostly determined by genetics but can be affected by environmental factors like UV radiation.

What is a gene?

A unit of heredity that determines various physical and biological traits.

What is natural selection?

A process that affects the expression of behavior and mental processes to increase survival and reproductive success.

What is eugenics?

The idea of improving the genetic quality of humans through selective breeding, often associated with forced sterilization.

What are twin studies?

Research comparing and studying differences between identical or fraternal twins to understand genetic and environmental influences.

What is a monozygotic twin?

Identical twins resulting from one sperm fertilizing one egg that splits into two, sharing the same genes/DNA.

What are dizygotic twins?

Fraternal twins resulting from two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm, genetically no closer than regular siblings.

What is the role of the central nervous system (CNS)?

It acts as the central processor of the nervous system, composed of the brain and spinal cord.

What does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) do?

Connects the CNS to the rest of the body, carrying information to and from the brain.

What is the somatic nervous system responsible for?

Controlling voluntary movements and conscious sensations.

What is the autonomic nervous system?

Regulates involuntary physiological processes.

What is the function of the sympathetic nervous system?

Prepares the body for stressful or life-threatening situations, often referred to as the fight or flight response.

What does the parasympathetic nervous system do?

Helps the body relax and return to homeostasis, often referred to as resting and digesting.

What are glial cells?

The most numerous cells in the CNS that support and protect neurons.

What is the function of dendrites?

Receive signals from other neurons and transmit them to the soma.

What is the role of the axon?

Transmits electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body.

What is the myelin sheath?

A protective covering that surrounds the axon, speeding up neural transmission.

What are motor (efferent) neurons responsible for?

Helping us move by carrying instructions from the brain to muscles.

What do sensory (afferent) neurons do?

Help us sense stimuli by carrying sensory information to the CNS for processing.

What are interneurons?

Neurons that carry messages between nerve cells and help process information.

Describe the Jim Twins study.

Identical twins separated at birth who exhibited many similarities in life choices and experiences despite being raised apart.

What is the Reflex Arc?

The neural pathway that controls automatic, involuntary responses without input from the brain.

What are sensory receptors and afferent neurons responsible for in the Reflex Arc?

They travel from your hand, up your arm to the spinal cord to process sensory information.

What role do interneurons play in the Reflex Arc?

They process sensory information and send a signal down to the efferent/motor neurons.

What is an Action Potential?

A brief electric surge that carries the neuron's message.

What occurs during depolarization?

Charged particles are moved across the cell membrane, allowing a charge to travel through the neuron.

What is the resting potential of a neuron?

When resting, axons are inactive and negatively charged.

What is the threshold in neural firing?

The minimum amount of stimulation a neuron needs to fire; the 'point of no return.'

What does the all-or-none principle state?

An axon either 'fires' all the way or not at all, depending on whether the threshold is met.

What is the refractory period?

The time when a neuron is not yet ready to fire again after an action potential.

What happens at the axon terminal button?

Neurotransmitters are sent across the synapse to the dendrites of another neuron.

What are neurotransmitters?

Chemicals that pass messages from one neuron to another.

What is the synapse?

The gap between the axon terminals of one neuron and the dendrites of another.

What is reuptake in neurotransmission?

The process where neurotransmitters float back to the original neuron after relaying their message.

What is the function of dopamine?

Produces sensations of pleasure and reward; involved in voluntary movement.

What problems are associated with dopamine imbalance?

Too much dopamine is linked to schizophrenia; too little is linked to Parkinson's disease.

What is serotonin involved in regulating?

Mood, sleep, appetite, aggression, and pain.

What problems are associated with serotonin imbalance?

Too little serotonin is linked to depression and OCD.

What is the role of norepinephrine?

Controls heart rate, sleep, stress, and vigilance; similar to adrenaline.

What issues arise from norepinephrine imbalance?

Too little can lead to depression; too much can cause high blood pressure.

What is acetylcholine (ACh) responsible for?

Enables muscle action, learning, and memory.

What problems are associated with acetylcholine imbalance?

Too little ACh is linked to Alzheimer's disease; certain muscular disorders can occur.

What is GABA's primary function?

It is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS, calming neural activity.

What issues arise from GABA imbalance?

Undersupply can lead to anxiety, seizures, and insomnia.

What is glutamate's role in the brain?

It is the major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory.

What problems can arise from glutamate imbalance?

Oversupply can lead to brain overstimulation, migraines, or seizures.

What are endorphins known for?

Producing pleasurable sensations and controlling pain, acting as natural 'morphine.'

What issues can arise from endorphin imbalance?

Lowered levels can result from opiate addiction.

What is Substance P involved in?

Transmitting pain signals from sensory receptors to the CNS for processing.

What effects can an imbalance of Substance P have?

Oversupply can contribute to anxiety; undersupply can lead to reduced pain sensitivity.

What is the role of agonists in neural transmission?

Agonists stimulate a reaction by mimicking the actions of neurotransmitters.

What is the function of antagonists in neural transmission?

Antagonists block a reaction by stopping the impact of neurotransmitters.

What is the purpose of reuptake inhibitors?

Reuptake inhibitors prevent neurotransmitters from being reabsorbed, increasing their effectiveness in the synapse.

What are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) used for?

SSRIs are medications for depression that aim to make serotonin more effective by preventing its reuptake.

What is the brainstem responsible for?

The brainstem controls major life support functions and connects the brain to the spinal cord.

What does the medulla control?

The medulla controls breathing and heart rate.

What is the function of the Reticular Activating System (RAS)?

The RAS filters sensory information, determines what reaches the conscious mind, and helps maintain alertness.

What is the 'reward center' of the brain?

The reward center is a network of structures that produces feelings of pleasure when needs are met or behaviors are rewarding.

What neurotransmitter is primarily associated with feelings of pleasure?

Dopamine is the neurotransmitter associated with pleasure.

What role does the cerebellum play in the brain?

The cerebellum is involved in balance, posture, voluntary movement, and coordination.

What is the primary function of the limbic system?

The limbic system is central to emotions and memory.

What is the role of the thalamus in the brain?

The thalamus acts as a relay system for sensory information, directing it to the appropriate part of the brain for processing.

What is the significance of the hippocampus?

The hippocampus plays a significant role in forming and storing new memories.

What does the hypothalamus regulate?

The hypothalamus regulates the body's condition and the 'Five F's': Fight, Flight, Feeding, Freezing, and Mating.

What is the function of the pituitary gland?

The pituitary gland secretes hormones that influence growth, metabolism, and reproductive functions.

What emotions does the amygdala process?

The amygdala processes emotions, especially fear, anger, and aggression.

What is the cerebral cortex responsible for?

The cerebral cortex facilitates voluntary activities like movement and thought.

What does the occipital lobe process?

The occipital lobe houses the visual cortex and decodes visual information.

What is the primary function of the temporal lobe?

The temporal lobe processes auditory information and is involved in long-term memory and language processing.

What does the parietal lobe monitor?

The parietal lobe monitors touch sensation and the relative position of the body (proprioception).

What higher-order functions does the frontal lobe facilitate?

The frontal lobe is involved in language processing, executive functioning, planning, and judgment.

What is the role of the prefrontal cortex?

The prefrontal cortex is responsible for personality expression and social behavior.

What does the motor cortex control?

The motor cortex controls most types of skeletal movement.

What is the homunculus?

The homunculus is a representation of how the brain 'sees' the body, mapping body parts to areas of the brain.

What is contralateral organization in the brain?

Contralateral organization means that the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body and vice versa.