PSYCH 1100 exam

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

independent variable

A manipulated experimental factor; the variable that the experimenter changed to see what its effects are

control group

The participants in an experiment who are as much like the experimental group as possible and who are treated in every way like the experimental group except for a manipulated factor, the independent variable.

descriptive research

Research that determines the basic dimensions of a phenomenon, defining what it is, how often it occurs, and so on.

double-blind experiment

an experimental design in which neither the experimenter nor the participants are aware of which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group until the results are calculated

external validity

the degree to which an experimental design actually reflects the real-world issues it is supposed to address

internal validity

the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable

longitudinal design

a special kind of systematic observation, used by correlational researchers, that involves obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time

meta-analysis

a statistical procedure that summarizes a large body of evidence from the research literature on a particular topic, allowing the researcher to assess the strength of the relationship between the variables

Correlational Research

research that examines the relationship between variables in order to find out whether and how two variables change together

placebo effect

a phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants, rather than actual treatment, produces an outcome

random assignment

the assignment of participants to experimental groups by chance, to reduce the likelihood that a study's results will be due to preexisting differences between groups

operational definition

a definition that provides an objective description of how a variable is going to be measured and observed in a particular study

cross-sectional design

a type of correlational study in which variables are measured at a single point in time

case study

an in-depth look at a single individual

third variable problem

The circumstance in which a variable that has not been measured accounts for the relationship between two other variables. Third variables are also known as confounds.

action potential

the brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon

Amygdala

An almond-shaped structure within the base of the temporal lobe that is involved in the discrimination of objects that are necessary for the organism's survival, such as appropriate food, mates, and social rivals.

corpus callosum

The large bundle of axons that connects the brain's two hemispheres, responsible for relaying information between the two sides.

brain stem

the stemlike brain area that includes much of the hindbrain (excluding the cerebellum) and the midbrain; connects with the spinal cord at its lower end and then extends upward to encase the reticular formation in the midbrain

frontal lobes

the portions of the cerebral cortex behind the forehead that are involved in personality, intelligence, and the control of voluntary muscles

Hippocampus

the structure in the limbic system that has a special role in the storage of memories

neural networks

network of nerve cells that integrate sensory input and motor output

Hypothalamus

A small forebrain structure, located just below the thalamus, that monitors three pleasurable activities—eating, drinking, and sex—as well as emotion, stress, and reward.

Neurotransmitters

chemical substances that are stored in very tiny sacs within the terminal buttons and involved in transmitting information across a synaptic gap to the next neuron

Neuroplasticity

the brain's lifelong ability to reorganize, adapt, and change its structure and function by forming new connections between brain cells.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

parasympathetic nervous system

the part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body

sympathetic nervous system

the part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to mobilize it for action and thus is involved in the experience of stress

temporal lobe

structures in the cerebral cortex that are located just above the ears and are involved in hearing, language processing, and memory

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the network of nerves that branches out from the brain and spinal cord to connect them to the rest of the body

Synapses

Tiny spaces between neurons; the gaps between neurons are referred to as synaptic gaps.

binocular cues

depth cues that depend on the combination of the images in the left and right eyes and on the way the two eyes work together

bottom-up processing

The operation in sensation and perception in which sensory receptors register information about the external environment and send it up to the brain for interpretation.

top-down processing

The operation in sensation and perception, launched by cognitive processing at the brain's higher levels, that allows the organism to sense what is happening and to apply that framework to information from the world.

Cones

the receptor cells in the retina that allow for color perception

Rods

The receptor cells in the retina that are sensitive to light but not very useful for color vision

Gestalt Psychology

a school of thought interested in how people naturally organize their perceptions according to certain patterns

figure-ground relationship

The principle by which we organize the perceptual field into stimuli that stand out (figure) and those that are left over (ground).

opponet-process theory

Theory stating that cells in the visual system respond to complementary pairs of red-green & blue-yellow ; a given cell might be excited by red and inhibited by green whereas another cell might be excited by yellow and inhibited by blue

Priming

the activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember new information better and faster

selective attention

the act of focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others

trichromatic theory

Theory stating that color perception is produced by three types of cone receptors in the retina that are particularly sensitive to different, but overlapping, ranges of wavelengths.

sensory adaptation

a change in the responsiveness of the sensory system based on the average level of surrounding stimulation

Weber's Law

The principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) to be perceived as different.

latent content

According to Freud, a dream's hidden content; its unconscious and true meaning.

reticular activating system

a network of structures including the brain stem, medulla, and thalamus that are involved in the experience of arousal and engagement with the environment

theory of mind

individuals' understanding that they and others think, feel, perceive, and have private experiences

REM sleep

an active stage of sleep during which dreaming occurs

circadian rhythm

daily behavioral or physiological cycles that involve the sleep/wake cycle, body temperature, blood pressure, and blood sugar level

Executive Function

higher-order, complex cognitive processes, including thinking, planning, and problem solving

Meditation

The attainment of a peaceful state of mind in which thoughts are not occupied by worry; the meditator is mindfully present to his or her thoughts and feelings but is not consumed by them.

emotion-focued coping

the coping strategy that involves responding to the stress that one is feeling-trying to manage one's emotional reaction-rather than focusing on the problem itself

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Selye's term for the common effects of stressful demands on the body, consisting of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

The complex set of interactions among the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the adrenal glands that regulate various body processes and control reactions to stressful events.

problem-focused coping

The coping strategy of squarely facing one's troubles and trying to solve them.

positive reappraisal

reinterpreting a potentially stressful experience as positive, valuable, or even beneficial

theory of planned behavior

Theoretical model that includes the basic ideas of the theory of reasoned action but adds the person's perceptions of control over the outcome.

Social Support

information and feedback from others indicating that one is loved and cared for, esteemed and valued, and included in a network of communication and mutual obligation

behavioral medicine

an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease

confirmation bias

the tendecy to search for and use information that support's ones ideas rather than refutes them

availability heuristic

a prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events

hindsight bias

the tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that one has accurately predicted an outcome

intellectual disability

a condition of limited mental ability that affects an individual's functioning in everyday life

intelligence quotient (IQ)

An individual's mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100.

representative heuristic

the tendency to make judgements about group membership based on physical appearances or the match between a person and one's stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information

base rate neglect

The tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information.

functional fixedness

failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing's usual functions

Heuristics

shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer

Triachic theory of intelligence

means you can be smart in three different ways: with schoolbooks, with creativity, or with common sense.

broaden-and-build-model

Fredrickson's model of positive emotion, stating that the function of positive emotions lies in their effects on an individual's attention and ability to build resources

extrinsic motivation

motivation that involves external incentives such as rewards and punishments

intrinsic motivation

Motivation based on internal factors such as organismic needs (competence, relatedness, and autonomy), as well as curiosity, challenge, and fun.

Homeostasis

The body's tendency to maintain an equilibrium, or steady state.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the psychological principle stating that performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than either low or high arousal

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's theory that human needs must be satisfied in the following sequence: physiological needs, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self actualization

display rules

sociocultural standards that determine when, where, and how emotions should be expressed

facial feedback hypothesis

the idea that facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them

Negative Affect

negative emotions such as anger, guilt, and sadness

self-actualization

The motivation to develop one's full potential as a human being—the highest and most elusive of Maslow's proposed needs.