Intro to American Politics Midterm 2

Political institutions

Organizations through which government exercises power, such as Congress, the presidency, courts, and bureaucracy.

Congress

The legislative branch of the federal government, responsible for making laws.

Representatives

Elected officials who make governing decisions on behalf of the public.

Bicameral legislature

A legislature with two chambers; Congress consists of the House and Senate.

House of Representatives

The chamber with 435 members who represent districts and serve two-year terms; representation is based on state population.

Senate

The chamber with 100 members, two per state, who represent entire states and serve six-year terms.

Majority party

The party with the most members in a legislative chamber; it controls leadership and much of the agenda.

Standing committees

Permanent congressional committees that specialize in particular policy areas.

Subcommittees

Smaller divisions of congressional committees that focus on more specific policy areas.

Oversight

Congressional investigation and evaluation of government activities to hold officials and agencies accountable.

Committee chairs

Leaders of congressional committees who influence hearing schedules and which bills move forward.

Steps for a bill to become law

A member introduces a bill; a committee considers it; both chambers pass identical versions; the president signs it or Congress overrides a veto.

Where most bills die

Most bills die in committee without reaching a vote by the full chamber.

Rules Committee

The House committee that establishes the rules for debating a bill.

Filibuster

A Senate tactic that delays or blocks action by preventing debate from ending.

Cloture

The procedure for ending Senate debate; generally requires 60 votes for ordinary legislation.

Conference committee

A temporary committee of House and Senate members that resolves differences between versions of a bill.

Veto

The president’s rejection of legislation passed by Congress.

Veto override

Congress passes a vetoed bill with a two-thirds vote in each chamber.

Advice and consent

The Senate’s authority to approve presidential nominees and treaties.

Impeachment

The House formally charges a federal official with misconduct by a majority vote; impeachment does not itself remove the official.

Removal after impeachment

The Senate holds a trial and can convict and remove an official with a two-thirds vote.

Midterm elections

Elections halfway through a presidential term in which all House seats and about one-third of Senate seats are contested.

Representation

Elected officials looking out for their constituents’ interests and carrying out their wishes.

Constituency

The people living in the district or state an elected official represents.

Policy representation

Working to pass laws that benefit constituents.

Allocative representation

Securing federal money for projects in a district or state.

Casework

Helping individual constituents resolve problems with government, such as delayed passports or Social Security benefits.

Reapportionment

Redistributing the 435 House seats among states after each census.

Redistricting

Redrawing district boundaries to account for population changes and maintain roughly equal populations.

Gerrymandering

Drawing district boundaries to advantage a particular group or political party.

Incumbent

An official who currently holds office.

Incumbency advantage

The electoral benefits of already holding office, including name recognition, fundraising connections, publicity, and constituent service.

Why voters dislike Congress but reelect their representatives

Voters may dislike Congress’s conflict and lack of productivity while appreciating their own representative’s service, local funding, and policy positions.

Head of state

The president’s role as the symbolic leader representing the entire nation.

Head of government

The president’s role as political leader of the executive branch and their party.

Conflict between presidential roles

Presidents are expected to unite the country while promoting a political agenda that many people oppose.

Chief administrator

The president’s role overseeing executive agencies responsible for implementing laws.

Cabinet

The heads of the 15 executive departments who advise the president and lead their departments.

Foreign policy

Government positions and actions concerning other countries and international actors.

Commander in chief

The president’s role as the civilian leader of the armed forces.

State of the Union

The president’s annual address to Congress outlining priorities and a policy agenda.

Executive order

A presidential directive telling officials within the executive branch how to act.

Signing statement

A statement issued when signing a law that explains the president’s interpretation or concerns about it.

Executive agreement

An agreement with a foreign government that does not go through the Senate’s treaty-ratification process.

Treaty approval

International treaties negotiated by the president require approval from two-thirds of senators present.

Pardoning power

The president’s authority to forgive federal crimes; it does not cover state crimes or undo impeachment.

Solicitor general

The official who leads the federal government’s representation before the Supreme Court.

Expectations gap

The difference between what people expect presidents to accomplish and what their actual powers allow.

Power to persuade

The president’s ability to convince other political actors to cooperate with their agenda.

Going public

A presidential strategy of appealing directly to citizens so they pressure other officials to cooperate.

Cycle effect

The tendency for presidential approval to begin relatively high and decline during a term.

Factors affecting presidential approval

The economy, major events, and the passage of time.

Why good economic statistics may not produce presidential approval

People may still struggle with prices or personal finances and judge the economy through their own experiences.

Unified government

The president’s party controls both chambers of Congress.

Divided government

The opposing party controls at least one chamber of Congress.

Inherent powers

Presidential powers claimed as implied by the Constitution rather than explicitly stated.

Unilateral action

Presidential action taken without first securing a new law from Congress.

Why presidential power has expanded

Economic crises, federal government growth, wars, and international responsibilities have increased demands on presidents.

Office of Management and Budget

The office that helps the president oversee federal agency budgets.

National Security Council

The body that advises the president on national security and foreign affairs.

Chief of staff

The official who manages White House staff and operations.

District courts

Federal trial courts that establish facts, hear testimony, and initially decide cases.

Courts of appeals

Federal courts that review lower-court decisions for legal errors, usually through three-judge panels.

Supreme Court

The highest federal court, which selects a small number of cases and resolves major legal questions.

Hierarchy of federal courts

District courts, then courts of appeals, then the Supreme Court.

Dual court system

The United States has separate state and federal court systems.

Judicial review

The power of courts to invalidate laws or government actions that violate superior law or the Constitution.

Marbury v. Madison

The landmark case establishing the Supreme Court’s authority to exercise judicial review.

Common law system

A legal system in which past judicial decisions establish precedents that guide or bind later decisions.

Civil law system

A legal system centered on detailed legal codes, with precedent generally playing a less binding role.

Statutory law

Law passed by a legislature.

Civil law

Law concerning disputes between people or organizations.

Criminal law

Law concerning offenses prosecuted by government.

Constitutional law

Law concerning the Constitution’s meaning and application.

Jurisdiction

A court’s authority to hear and decide cases.

Original jurisdiction

Authority to hear a case for the first time.

Appellate jurisdiction

Authority to review a lower court’s decision.

Subject-matter jurisdiction

Authority over a particular category of cases.

Discretionary jurisdiction

Authority to choose which cases to hear.

Error correction

Reviewing whether a lower court made a legal mistake.

Petition for a writ of certiorari

A request that the Supreme Court review a lower court’s decision.

Discuss list

The list of petitions that at least one Supreme Court justice wants the justices to discuss.

Rule of four

Four Supreme Court justices must agree to hear a case.

Brief

A written legal argument submitted by a party to a case.

Amicus brief

A written argument submitted by an interested person or organization that is not a party to the case.

Oral argument

Lawyers present their arguments and answer questions from judges.

Majority opinion

The opinion explaining the decision and reasoning supported by a majority of the court.

Majority opinion author

The justice assigned to write the majority’s reasoning.

Concurring opinion

An opinion agreeing with the result but offering different or additional reasoning.

Dissenting opinion

An opinion disagreeing with the majority’s decision.

Selection of federal judges

The president nominates federal judges and the Senate votes on confirmation.

Factors affecting judicial nominations and confirmations

Legal qualifications and political views influence presidential nominations and Senate confirmation decisions.

Precedent

An earlier judicial decision that guides or binds decisions in later similar cases.

Stare decisis

The principle of following precedent.

Legislative deference

Giving weight to decisions made by elected lawmakers.

Plain meaning

Interpreting legal language according to the ordinary meaning of its words.

Judicial philosophy

A general approach to interpreting and applying legal principles.

Originalism

Interpreting the Constitution according to its original meaning or intent.

Pragmatism

Interpreting law by considering text, history, precedent, and practical consequences.