Food Policy Quiz 3

Agricultural labor and hired farmworkers

Farmworkers are essential to producing the food people eat, but their working conditions can be difficult.

Major challenges facing hired farmworkers

• Dangerous working conditions.

• Low pay.

• Seasonal employment and unpredictable schedules.

• Immigration-related vulnerability: the lecture estimates that approximately 40% of farmworkers are undocumented.

Why undocumented status can increase vulnerability

Fear of immigration enforcement or deportation can make workers less likely to report unsafe conditions, wage theft, or mistreatment. This can make existing workplace inequalities more difficult to challenge.

Migrant and Seasonal Agricultural Worker Protection Act (1983)

Requires disclosure of employment terms during recruitment, licensing of farm labor contractors, housing that meets applicable standards, and basic transportation standards.

National Labor Relations Act (NLRA)

Protects many workers who organize or support labor unions, but farmworkers are excluded from its federal protections.

• Farmworkers are excluded from the NLRA's federal protections for organizing and collective bargaining. The lecture notes that some states have extended union-related protections to farmworkers, including New York and California in 2019.

Occupational Safety and Health Act (1970)

Establishes minimum workplace safety standards.

H-2A visa program

Provides temporary visas for foreign workers to perform agricultural labor in the United States.

• It supplies temporary agricultural labor.

• Its use has been increasing, according to the lecture.

• The program has specific rules and conditions attached to workers' employment.

Case study: Migrant dairy farmworkers in Vermont

• 321M+ Gallons of milk sold annually in Vermont

• 70% Of Vermont agricultural sales attributed to milk

• 6,000–7,000 Dairy industry jobs

• 1,000–1,200 Migrant dairy workers, with 90% thought to be undocumented

The shadow economy

Economic activity that is difficult to see in official or celebratory accounts of the food system. Vermont may be known for its dairy industry and food culture, but that positive image can obscure the labor conditions experienced by migrant workers.

Migrant Justice

• Formed in 2009 in the Burlington, Vermont area.

• Works to build farmworkers' collective voice, capacity, and power.

• Advocates for economic justice and human rights.

• Addresses issues including wage theft, biased policing, and unfair working and living conditions.

Milk with Dignity Campaign

An effort to improve conditions for dairy farmworkers and connect the production of milk with respect for workers' rights.

Food-system labor extends beyond farms to:

• Processing and manufacturing.

• Transportation.

• Retail.

• Restaurants and food service.

• Slaughterhouses and meatpacking facilities.

Meatpacking and slaughterhouse workers may face:

• Biological hazards, including infections, MRSA, and influenza.

• Ergonomic hazards and musculoskeletal disorders.

• Hazardous chemicals, including chlorine and hydrogen peroxide.

• Excessive noise.

Food waste in the US

• Food waste per capita has increased by 50% since 1974.

• Americans waste approximately $218 billion worth of food annually, while 44 million people experience food insecurity.

• major contradiction: large quantities of food are wasted while many people lack reliable access to food.

Labor of food waste

Food waste does not simply disappear. Workers must collect, sort, transport, compost, redistribute, or resell it.

Trash collection

Collects and transports discarded food and other waste.

Commercial composting

Processes organic waste into compost.

Cooperative extension

Provides education and assistance related to composting.

Emergency food providers

Distribute food through food banks and food pantries.

Imperfect-food companies

Attempt to resell food that may not meet conventional appearance standards.

Exchange value and workers' wages

The lecture states that the low exchange value of food waste is reflected in the treatment and wages of workers who handle it.

• when discarded food is viewed as having little economic value, the labor involved in handling it may also be undervalued.

Volunteer labor

The lecture asks why relying on volunteers for emergency food systems and mutual aid can be problematic

• Food banks and mutual-aid efforts provide important assistance to people facing food insecurity.

• Volunteer labor can help these organizations operate, but it may also mean that essential work depends on unpaid labor.

• Reliance on volunteers can raise questions about long-term sustainability, consistent staffing, and who is responsible for addressing food insecurity.

Goals of nutrition assistance programs

Two major goals:

1. Enhance food security and prevent hunger.

2. Promote nutrition and health.

• These programs provide support to people who may have difficulty accessing sufficient or nutritious food.

WIC: Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children

Became a permanent program in 1974. It provides nutrition services, referrals, and benefits for nutrient-dense foods to eligible women, infants, and children.

Who is eligible for WIC?

• Low-income pregnant women.

• Low-income postpartum women.

• Infants and children up to age five.

Participants must meet the program's eligibility requirements, including relevant nutritional-risk criteria.

What does WIC Provide?

The lecture lists the following food benefits:

• Milk and eggs.

• Juice.

• Breakfast cereal.

• Peanut butter.

• Dried and canned beans or peas.

• Canned fish.

• Whole-grain bread.

• Fruits and vegetables through a cash-value benefit.

• Infant cereal.

• Infant formula, with the amount provided taking breastfeeding into consideration.

WIC also provides nutrition services and referrals. The Farmers' Market Nutrition Program is another related topic mentioned in the slides.

SNAP

• Entitlement program

• Helps eligible households purchase food

• Eligible applicants generally receive benefits under the program's entitlement rules.

WIC

• Nonentitlement or discretionary program

• Provides specified food benefits and nutrition services for eligible women, infants, and children.

• Funding constraints can limit participation, potentially creating priority lists.

Entitlement

Eligible applicants generally have a legal right to benefits under the program's rules.

Nonentitlement / discretionary

Benefits depend on available funding and program administration, so meeting eligibility criteria does not necessarily guarantee immediate enrollment when resources are constrained.

National School Lunch Program (NSLP)

1946, provides school lunch meals to eligible students.

School Breakfast Program (SBP).

Began in the 1960s; permanently authorized in 1975, supports access to breakfast at school.

Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP)

Reimburses eligible meals served through childcare homes, daycare facilities, and adult daycare settings.

Healthy Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010

This act introduced reforms intended to improve child nutrition in school meals.

Major provisions covered in the lecture:

• Minimum requirements for fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.

• Maximum limits for sodium, sugar, and fat.

• Increased auditing and oversight.

• → Federal nutrition standards influence what schools serve. They attempt to improve the nutritional quality of meals, but schools must implement those standards within their available budgets, staffing, and food-service infrastructure

Changes to school nutrition standards

Two later developments:

• 2018: The Trump administration rolled back some nutritional standards.

• July 1, 2024: New child nutrition program meal-pattern rules were introduced to align with the 2020–2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans.

National School Lunch Program eligibility

According to the lecture's listed income thresholds:

• Free meals Below 130%

• Reduced-price meals 130%–185%

• Paid meals Above 185%

Community Eligibility Provision (CEP)

Included in the Healthy Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010.

It allows qualifying schools or districts with high rates of low-income students to offer free meals to all students, rather than requiring every student to qualify individually through the standard application process.

Why is this important?

• It can reduce barriers to school meal participation.

• It can simplify meal administration.

• It can help schools provide meals without singling out students based on income.

Offer vs. Serve

The basic idea is that schools offer the required meal components while allowing students to decline certain components, subject to program rules. This provides some choice while maintaining nutritional requirements.

Smart Snacks in School

Another school nutrition policy referenced in the lecture. It addresses nutrition standards for foods and beverages sold to students at school outside the reimbursable school meal programs.

The broader goal is to make the school food environment more consistent with nutrition recommendations.

Healthy School Meals for All

This refers to policies or programs that provide free school meals to all students, regardless of their individual household income.

Standard NSLP eligibility system vs. Universal school meals

• Traditional NSLP: Students' meal eligibility is determined through applicable income or categorical eligibility rules.

• Universal school meals: All students in a participating school or district can receive meals free of charge.