Review Sheet for Chapters 5-7: Consciousness, Learning, and Memory

Vocabulary flashcards covering core terms, concepts, sleep disorders, conditioning principles, and memory processes from Chapters 5, 6, and 7.

Circadian Rhythms

Biological cycles of physiological and behavioral processes that repeat roughly every 24 hours, such as the sleep-wake cycle.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

A structure located in the hypothalamus that acts as the body's internal biological clock, regulating circadian rhythms in response to light signals.

Melatonin

A hormone produced by the pineal gland that plays a key role in regulating the sleep-wake cycle by promoting drowsiness as darkness falls.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A device used to detect and record electrical activity in the brain through electrodes attached to the scalp, commonly used to distinguish sleep stages.

Electrooculogram (EOG)

An instrument that records electrical potential differences caused by eye movements, particularly useful in identifying rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.

Electromyogram (EMG)

An instrument that records electrical activity and muscle tension, used during sleep studies to monitor muscle relaxation and sleep paralysis.

Insomnia

A sleep disorder characterized by persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or achieving restorative sleep.

Sleep Apnea

A sleep disorder marked by repeated cessations of breathing during sleep, leading to momentary awakenings and severe daytime fatigue.

Narcolepsy

A neurological sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable episodes of falling asleep suddenly during normal waking hours.

Somnambulism

A sleep disorder, commonly known as sleepwalking, in which a person walks or carries out complex behaviors during deep non-REM (slow-wave) sleep.

Night Terrors

Sleep episodes characterized by intense autonomic arousal and panic, typically occurring during non-REM stage 3 or 4 sleep and not remembered upon waking.

Nightmares

Anxiety-provoking, frightening dreams with vivid storylines that typically occur during REM sleep and are often remembered clearly upon waking.

Psychodynamic View of Dreams (Freud)

The perspective proposing that dreams represent unconscious wishes, urges, and repressed conflicts that are disguised as symbolic narratives.

Activation-Synthesis Model (Hobson)

The physiological theory proposing that dreams are the brain's attempt to synthesize and make sense of random periodic bursts of neural activity originating in the brainstem during REM sleep.

Problem-Solving View of Dreams (Cartwright)

The cognitive theory suggesting that dreams provide a space for creative problem-solving and emotional regulation regarding everyday waking dilemmas without waking constraints.

Dreams of Absent-Minded Transgression (DAMIT)

Dreams in which individuals attempting to modify an addictive habit or unhealthy behavior inadvertently break their resolution, accompanied by intense feelings of guilt.

Manifest Content

In Freud's dream theory, the literal, conscious storyline and surface imagery of a dream experienced and remembered by the dreamer.

Latent Content

In Freud's dream theory, the underlying, hidden psychological meaning, unconscious motives, and disguised wishes represented by the dream.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning in conditioning, during which a response is first established and gradually strengthened through paired presentations.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally, reflexively, and automatically elicits a specific physiological or emotional response without prior learning.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring reaction or reflex to an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

In classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a learned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

In classical conditioning, the learned response produced by a previously neutral conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Generalization

The tendency of a conditioned response to be elicited by stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination

The learned ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal the unconditioned stimulus, responding only to the specific conditioned cue.

Law of Effect (Thorndike)

Edward Thorndike's principle stating that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences tend to be repeated, whereas behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.

Positive Reinforcement

An operant conditioning procedure in which the presentation of a favorable stimulus following a behavior increases the likelihood that the behavior will occur again.

Negative Reinforcement

An operant conditioning procedure in which the removal, termination, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus following a behavior strengthens that behavior.

Punishment

An operant conditioning consequence that weakens or decreases the frequency of the behavior that it follows.

Extinction

The gradual weakening and eventual cessation of a conditioned response when the reinforcer (in operant conditioning) or unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) is no longer provided.

Primary Reinforcers

Innate reinforcing stimuli that satisfy basic biological needs, such as food, water, and warmth, without requiring prior learning.

Secondary Reinforcers

Conditioned stimuli that acquire their reinforcing value through learned associations with primary reinforcers, such as money, grades, or praise.

Premack Principle

The behavioral principle stating that an opportunity to engage in a high-probability or preferred behavior can serve as an effective reinforcer for a low-probability or less-preferred behavior.

Observational Learning (Bandura)

Albert Bandura's concept that individuals can acquire new behaviors and information by watching, retaining, and imitating the actions of others (modeling).

Encoding

The initial memory process of transforming sensory input and information into a neural code or construct that can be stored in the memory system.

Storage

The memory process of maintaining and retaining encoded information over time within sensory, short-term, or long-term memory.

Retrieval

The memory process of locating, recovering, and bringing stored information from long-term memory back into conscious awareness.

Atkinson and Shiffrin Model of Memory

A classical multi-store memory model proposing that incoming information moves sequentially through sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Episodic Memory

A subdivision of explicit long-term memory that stores personally experienced events, autobiographical details, and specific temporal-spatial episodes.

Semantic Memory

A subdivision of explicit long-term memory that stores general conceptual knowledge, factual information, words, and ideas detached from personal experience.

Prospective Memory

The aspect of memory dedicated to remembering to execute planned actions or intentions at a specific future time or upon encountering a future cue.

Retrospective Memory

The aspect of memory dedicated to retrieving information, past experiences, events, and acquired knowledge from the past.

Decay Theory

The hypothesis proposing that forgetting occurs because the physical memory trace (engram) in the brain fades and deteriorates over time simply through disuse.

Proactive Interference

A memory failure that occurs when previously learned information disrupts or inhibits the ability to learn or retrieve newly encountered information.

Retroactive Interference

A memory failure that occurs when newly acquired information interferes with the ability to recall older, previously learned material.

Schemas

Organized mental cognitive frameworks or clusters of knowledge about concepts, objects, or situations that guide how new information is interpreted and recalled.