Exam 1

What is the Environmental?

The natural world, human societies, and the human-built world.

What is Environmental science?

The Interdisciplinary study of environmental problems and human

impacts on the environment

Examples of interdisciplinary studies

Geology

• Meteorology

• Climatology

Biology

• Ecology

Chemistry

Physics

Engineering

Examples of environmental problems

• Flooding

• Deforestation

• Climate Change

• Pollution

• Ocean Acidification

• Soil Depletion

• Fresh Water Usage

Examples of human impacts

• Carbon Emissions

• Deforestation

• Desertification

• Waste Disposal

• Wetland Destruction

• Energy Demands

What is sustainability?

The practical goal for people to co-exist on Earth over a long period of time.

The Environmentalist’s Paradox

• Well-being is flawed, and is declining.

• Advances to food production outweigh the effects of ecosystem decline.

• Human technology makes us less dependent of ecosystems services.

• A time lag between ecosystem decline and human well-being.

These explanations are examples of hypotheses

The scientific method

• All science share a method of learning and understanding natural phenomena.

• Observations / systematic collection of evidence that can be seen and tested by anyone with resources to do so.

The scientific method is…

A collective process and iterative (repetitive) process

Scientific research

Using the scientific method to make new discoveries and confirm old discoveries.

Hypothesis

A plausible but unproven explanation for the way things happen.

• Research either supports or does not support a

hypothesis.

A hypothesis is credible if…

• It explains new data

• Predicts the outcomes of new experiments

• Confirmed by other scientists

Theory

A set of hypotheses that has been validated through repeated challenges of experimentation and empirical observation.

• Supported by substantial bodies of data

• Obeys physical laws

• Can be applied to nearly all situations

Example of a theory

Spherical Earth Theory

Supported by:

Mathematical Laws

• Look into GPS Calculations

Physical Laws

• Atomic Behavior

• Gravitational Forces

Direct Observation

• Lunar/Solar Eclipses

• Shadow Lengths

• Constellation Changes

• Satellite Imagery

• First Person Testimony (over 700)!!!!

Spherical Earth Theory in discipline studies

Repeated scientific experimentation over thousands of years in multiple disciplines of study!

• Geology

• Oceanography

• Geography

• Astronomy

• Physics

• Engineering

• Astrophysics

• Chemistry

• Business Logistics

• Risk Management

• Tourism

• Air Travel

• And on, and on….

Are hypotheses and theories proven?

Hypotheses and theories are NEVER completely proven. In science, no explanation is closed to questioning.

Sound Science

Hypotheses that have survived the rigors of the scientific method and are considered valid.

Sound science process

• Peer Reviewed

• Published

• Results are not politically motivated

• Funding of research has no conflict of interest

• Eliminates bia

Junk science

Information that is presented as valid science but does no follow the rigorous methods legitimate science uses.

• Selective Results

• Politically Motivated

• Published without peer review

Examples of Junk science

Usually released by special interest groups attempting to influence public debate about scientific concerns.

• Tobacco Institute

• Vaccines cause autism

• Modern climate change are natural cycles

Scientific Model

A precise representation of how a natural process operates or how a natural system behaves.

• Models can be used to test consistency of knowledge or make predictions and compare results to observations.

Examples of Scientific Models

• Weather Prediction

• Earthquake Hazard Prevention

• Mine Safety

• Scientists present their findings to the public through scientific journals, professional meetings, and collaborative research efforts.

Population

A group of members of the same species living in an area.

• People living in a city

• Great white sharks in the world

• Ants in an ant hill

Communities

The populations of different species living together in one area.

• Oak and Cedar trees often co-inhabit the same space.

• Dog Park

• Coral Reef

Population growth

The change in the size of a population.

• Births and Deaths

• Immigration

• Emigration

Human Populations

Worldwide:

8,171,092,031 (as of 8/18/2024)

What is the most populated country?

India:

• 1,452,628,629 (as of 8/18/2024)

China:

• 1,418,896,663 (as of 8/18/2024)

What will be the population by 2057?

10 Billion

• Most growth is expected to occur in Africa and

Oceania

Exponential Growth

The population increases by a fixed % each year.

• Assumes favorable conditions

• Assumes unlimited resources

Calculating Exponential Growth

G= r * N

G = Population Growth

r = Rate of Population Increase

N = Population Size

r positive → population increases

r negative → population decreases

r is zero → no population growth

Logistic Growth

The population increases exponentially at first, but limited resources regulate growth.

• Population can level off at the carrying capacity

• Population can exceed the carrying capacity

Carrying Capacity

The upper limit to the population that an ecosystem can support without being degraded.

What would happen if a population exceeded the carrying capacity?

Environmental Resistance

All the factors that limit a populations growth and create a carrying capacity.

• Water

• Food

• Air

• Space

• Other Species

Population Density

The amount of population that exists in an area.

• Populations can be limited by other factors besides ecosystem limitations.

Limiting factors based on population density can be dependent or independent.

Density Dependent Limits

A limitation that increases/decreases as a direct result of the population density increases/decreases.

• Disease

• Predation

• Competition

• Waste

Density Independent Limits

A limitation that is not related to the density of a population.

• Natural Disasters

• Climate

• Environment Modifications

Critical Number

Minimum base population required to for a species to survive.

• Minimum Protection

• Minimum Reproduction

Examples of independent ad dependent

Human Population:

• Dependent Factor

• Space/Land

• Independent Factor

• Pollution

We have developed technologies that allow us to eliminate limiting factors.

Energy and power

Current World Population:

• ~8.2 Billion

Population without Power:

• ~1.2 Billion

Energy resource

Something that can produce heat, electricity, or move a vehicle.

Examples of energy and power

• Fossil Fuels are combustible materials derived from

organisms that lived in the past

• Alternative Energy is energy generated in a way that

does not deplete natural resources or harm the

environment.

Energy

The ability to move matter.

• Light

• Heat

• Movement

• Electricity

Example of energy

Heat energy is produced by the vibrational motion of atoms and

molecules.

Kinetic Energy

Energy in action or motion.

• Burning fuel

• Water Whee

Potential Energy

Energy in storage.

• Stretched rubber band

Power

The amount of energy used over time.

• Home Electricity

• Playing a Sport

Why are we hooked on fossil fuels?

The potential energy from a single barrel of oil is very

high.

• Very, very high…

Examples of energy from this

1 Gallon of Gasoline

• 116,000 BTU

• ~$3.30/Gallon

108 Slices of Pizza

• 116,000 BTU

• ~$220

Types of energy

Electric, Chemical, Thermal, and Kinetic

Electrical energy

The movement of electrons through a conductor.

Chemical energy

Energy stored in chemical bonds compounds

Energy conversion

Chemical, Thermal, Kinetic, and Electric

US energy sources

79% of US energy is sourced from fossil fuels!

• Petroleum (Oil) – 36%

• Natural Gas – 32%

• Coal – 11%

• 83% from Fossil Fuels- 2010

• 81% from Fossil Fuels- 2016

Electrical grids

Interconnected networks for electrical delivery

• A grid that crosses state borders must follow federal

regulations

• The US electrical network is separated into electrical grids.

So, what happened during the 2021 polar vortex freeze?

• Texas’ power grid is not regulated by federal standards.

• Power companies lobbied to rewrite state regulations.

• The power grid was out of date and could not withstand the constant peak usage

Base load

The minimum electric output required in a 24-hour period.

• Coal and Nuclear

Renewable generation

Fills the gaps between the baseload and required

load.

• Wind and solar

Peak generation

The maximum electric load needed for a given time.

• Gas and Oi

Renewable energy

Comes from sources that are naturally replenishing

• Wind

• Solar

• Hydro

• Geothermal

• Bio

Non-Renewable energy

Comes from sources that do not replenish over short amounts of time.

• Gas

• Coal

• Oil

• Nuclear

Dispatchable

Power is power that can be used at any time.

• We can turn it on/off for near

instant demand.

• Gas

• Hydro

• Oil

• Geothermal

Non-Dispatchable

Power is power that cannot be regulated for

demand.

• Solar

• Coal

• Nuclear

• Wind

What do we need energy for?

• Electricity

• Transportation

• Heating/Cooling

What are hydrocarbons?

A hydrocarbon is a compound composed

mostly of hydrogen and carbon.

Why hydrocarbons?

• The atomic bonds store a lot of energy!

• Easily reacts to release the energy as heat.

• Reaction also releases H2O and CO2

Which hydrocarbons have the most energy?

The ones with a short chain.

• Methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc.

• Long chains: Coal, plastic, motor oil, diesel, gasoline, etc.

Hydrocarbons are…

• Flammable

• Easy to use

• Easily Transported

• Complete Combustion

• Releases maximum amounts of energy

• High Energy Potential

Hydrocarbon chemical formula

Ch4+O2→CO2+2H2O+Heat

Hydrocarbon conversion process

1. Burn the fuel

2. Steam spins turbines

3. Turbine spins generator

4. Electricity generated

Types of hydrocarbons; Petroleum

Petroleum – liquid mixture of hydrocarbon that can be refined to produce fuels and chemical feedstock.

Types of hydrocarbons, Natural Gas

Natural Gas – Flammable gas, consisting of methane and other hydrocarbons, that occurs naturally underground.

Types of hydrocarbons; Coal

Coal – Combustible rock of carbonized plant matter, found mainly in underground deposits

Why do we love hydrocarbons?

• Cheap

• Easy

• Efficient

What happens when you burn hydrocarbons?

Ch4+O2→CO2+2H2O+Heat

• All hydrocarbons release CO2

• 1 gallon gas = 6.3 lbs → releases 20 lbs of CO2

• All the added weight comes from oxygen

Which hydrocarbon releases the most and the least CO2?

CO2 emitted to create 293 kwh (1,000,000 BTUs)

• Average US consumption = ~ 900 kwh /month

• Coal = 33% world’s energy but 44% of CO2

Global CO2

Natural gas- 20%, Coal- 44%, and Oil- 36%

How do Oil and Gas Form?

Most are from algae and plankton

• Settle with clay minerals at ocean depths.

• Burial and Compaction causes Lithification = Shale

• Continued burial increases heat to 90°C and oil forms = Oil Shale

• Continued burial increases heat to 120°C = gas

• Temperatures past 250°C metamorphose = graphite.

Oil window

The temperature range from when oil starts to form to when gas stops forming, and graphite begins forming.

Global Distribution of Oil and Gas

1.) Venezuela- 300.9

2.) Saudi Arabia- 266.5

3.) Canada- 169.7

4.) Iran- 158.4

5.) Iraq- 142.5

6.) Kuwait- 106.5

Why is nearly 2/3 of the world’s oil in the Persian Gulf region?

The Middle Eats has 56% of the worlds oil reserves.

• The Middle East was once an ocean, Pangea, were many algae/plankton died creating oil.

• Creates the perfect environment for a reservoir

Source rock

The rock capable of generating hydrocarbons.

Reservoir rock

Porous rock that stores hydrocarbon

Seal

Impermeable rock that prevents hydrocarbons from moving.

Onshore drilling

• 70% of worldwide production

• Simple and quick setup

• 4,000 barrels/well/day

• Depreciated production

• Short lifespan (15-30 years)

• ~$20 million per rig

Offshore drilling

• 0% of worldwide production

• Specialized setup

• 50,000 barrels/well/day

• Consistent production

• Up to 50-year lifespan

• ~$650 million per rig

Conventional drilling

Pumping oil and gas directly from a reservoir rock.

• Porous and permeable

Unconventional drilling

Removing oil and gas from tiny pockets in the source rock.

• Porous, but impermeable

Porosity

The amount of space that exists between the grains or crystals of a rock.

• Shapes of grains (NOT size)

• Cementation

• Fractures

• Sorting of grains

Permeability

The ability for liquids and gases to flow through an object.

• Compactness

• Pore connectivity

• Grain Size

• Grain Sorting

• Cementation

How do we get oil and gas from an impermeable source?

FRACKING!

Hydraulic Fracturing

The fracturing of porous, but impermeable, source rock to remove hydrocarbons.

How does Hydraulic fracturing happen?

• Drill horizontally through source rock

• Inject water and sand

• Pressurize to break the rock

• Less dense oil and gas move to well rig.

Issues with fracking?

• Gas escape

• Water Usage

• Waste water leak

• Waste water disposal

What are Tar sands?

Petroleum soaked, partially consolidated, sandstones.

How are Tar sands extracted.made?

• Large amounts of material are mined/crushed

• Petroleum is separated form the sands

• Cleaning/distilling of the petroleum

• Refining for use

Problem with Tar sands? ($$$)

• 1.70 trillion barrels of oil =1,700,000,000,000 x $80 = $136,000,000,000,000 (trillion!)

• Must move 2 tons of earth to process 1 barrel = 1,700,000,000,000 x 4,000 lbs =

• 6,800,000,000,000,000 lbs of earth (quadrillion)

• Need ~1.75 gallons of water per barrel 1.75 gallons x 1,700,000,000,000 = 2,975,000,000,000 gallons of water

Keystone Pipeline

An oil pipeline system in Canada and the United States, commissioned in 2010 by TransCanada.

• Rejected by the Obama admin.

• Approved by the Trump admin.

How are oil and gas transported?

Natural gas pipelines and Petroleum pipelines

• Mostly come down to Texas.

How was coal formed?

• Ancient plants died in a swamp millions of years ago.

• These plants were buried under water and dirt.

• Heat and pressure turned these dead plants into coal.