GVPT459Y Exam 1

Ideology

a belief system distinguished by:

• coherence

• stability

• contrast

Coherence/constraint

set of ideas interconnected or linked by an underlying logic: holding one belief should predict holding another

• begs the question: what counts as logic here?

stability

relatively stable set of ideas, staying stable over time

Contrast

can be distinguished from other sets of ideas

Spatiality

represent ideology on a graph with one or more axis, typically one dimension

• Ex: scale of liberalism to conservatism

• Very limited

• Not generalizable beyond the U.S. context

• Can’t reduce ideology to dimensions at all

Multiple dimension ideology

emerged from the 1960s-70s social issues (abortion, equal rights) which didn’t fit in the classic left-right spectrum

• is 2d enough? Do other axis exist?

Symbolic ideology

the label/identity (affective, emotional attachment)

• normal people are mostly this, with strong party loyalty

Operational identity

where one actually stands on issue positions

Symbolic vs. operational

issue preferences do not always accord ideological self

• people may label themselves as something but don’t know what that means

• Their views don’t match their label

Bipolarity

distribution of ideology being polar opposites

• spatial approach assumes bipolarity

• people may define labels using entirely different concepts

• Problem: these may not be opposite views but just fundamentally different ones

Cognitive Affective Mapping (CAM)

a different spatial approach based on how people speak on certain topics

• but to what extent does speech reveal ideology

Liberalism: historical origins

Starts as a critical response to earlier, medieval social order

• early modern Europe

• individuals were subordinate to their clans, tribes and extended families/kingdoms

• People saw issues with how people were prescribed into hierarchical role

Liberalism

emphasis on the importance of the individual, the idea of liberation/emancipation from complete subservience to the group

• push for individual freedom

• relaxation of tight hold of customs, law and authority

• early ideas of liberalism emerged as a solution to wanting individual freedom but no conflict

• individualism, freedom, limits on government power

Liberalism: strategy of limits on government power

liberal thinkers struggled with the need for a strong government and their commitments to individual freedom

• Hobbes: Argued the absolute power of a sovereign is justified not by divine right, but by the consent of the governed who agree (by social contract) to obey in exchange for peace and security

John Locke

Promoted a social contract theory of government

• people have “natural rights” to freedom of thought, speech and worship

• legitimate government is the result of a social contract in which people conditionally transfer some of their rights to the government in order to ensure stability

• government’s purpose is to protect the person and property of individuals and guarantee their “natural rights”

Property, according to Locke

Life being your own, liberty being your own and then your materials as well

Locke’s labor theory

something becomes yours when you put yourself and your own labor into it

• places some limits: have to leave enough for others

• spoilage: can’t take a bunch of stuff and let it spoil

Positive liberty

you have the freedom to

• government provides services to enable people

Negative liberty

you have the freedom from

• freedom from a tyrannical government

Economic liberalism

a critical response to dominance of mercantilism (maximizing exports, minimizing imports)

• rejects mercantilism — economics should be free of politics

• economy should be an open area where people freely come together and exchange goods/services

John Mill’s harm principle

The one legitimate reason to restrict someone’s liberty: preventing harm to others

• can’t restrict marketplace of ideas

• should not restrict liberty for public disapproval or “it’s for your own good”

Liberalism vs. Democracy

Liberalism: concerned with the scope of government power and activity, motivated by a commitment to individual freedom

Democracy: concerned with popular sovereignty — ensuring that governments derive their authority from “the people” (popular elections)

Liberal ideology inspired what events?

American Revolution and French Revolution

Conservation Synthesis (Burke)

Need to respect some aspects of the past, or there’s risk of excessive individualism

• traditions, cultires

Burke

• A liberal technically

• Against abstract quests, such as maximizing equality, liberty and wealth

• Not an extreme supporter of free markets

Scruton

• Conservative allegiance to society is an end in itself, not a means to something else

• Not every old tradition deserves loyalty, some conservatives should be rejected

  • torture for punishment of crimes

• Tradition is enacted, not designed

Nationalism

belief that humanity is divided into various nations

• members of a nation ought to value their nations/national identity

• Must have some form of political sovereignty

Nationalism: historical context

• Emerged in late 18th century, more rapidly in the 19th century (Age of Nationalism)

• Very modern ideology

Liberal/early nationalism

• Closely tied to growing popularity of liberalism and democracy

• Emphasis on ideals of individual freedom — popular sovereignty, autonomy, degitimate desire for self-rule

What defines a nation?

Involuntary ties — common historical origins, shared race or ethnicity, common language, culture, customs, traditions, norms

Herder

• nationalism

• Emphasized the importance of language in nations, not religion, ethnicity, or history

• ethnic nationalism: based on beliefs about non-voluntary membership and identity, emphasizes ethnicity, race, bloodlines, genetics, etc

Renan

• nationalism

• Rejects geography, religion, race, language, etc, as criteria for nationhood

• A nation is voluntary and defined by shared lived experiences and commitment to a shared future/destiny

• civic nationalism: based on voluntaristic and inclusive principles, emphasizing shared experience, history, and future

  • can be any people

Smith’s three stories for nationalism

Economic, political power, constitutive

Socialism: historical context

• Emerged in 19-century Europe during industrialization

• Reaction against laissez-faire capitalism and harsh working conditions

• Critiqued early capitalism

Socialism

Economic equality, some degree of collective ownership, cooperation over competition

Communism

abolition of private property, classless and stateless society, full collective ownership

Saint Simon

• Socialism

• Wanted society organized for the benefit of its most productive members (scientists, engineers, industrialists) rather than nobles or clergy

• Cooperation, not class conflict, would drive progress

Marx and Engels

• Communism

• Lower middle class is reactionary

• Bourgeoisie is a sorcerer who can’t control his forces (upper class is out of control)

• Overproduction leads to constant crisis

Lenin

• socialism and communism in practice

• Marxism-Leninism: a vanguard party of professional revolutionaries must lead the working class

• Vanguard party rule: socialism, then communism

• Economists/intellectuals need to break out of a mold and start teaching the working class about political knowledge

Mao

• communism/socialism in China

• A “new-democratic” revolution first, socialism later

Fascism: historical context

• influenced by social Darwinism and the ideas of struggle, hierarchy and survival of the fittest

• Drew on nationalist and anti-Enlightenment traditions, emphasizing emotion, myth, and collective identity

• Reject the idea of some orderly, rational progression of history: emotion and gut instincts were much more vital, effective drivers of history

Gustave Le Bon

• fascism

• crowd mind: emotional, weak-minded, easily swayed

Georges Sorel

• Disillusioned syndicalist: “the ballot box has replaced the gun”

• Myth: the general strike as a unifying vision, not a literal plan

• Violence: a legitimate, even necessary force to deny a decaying order

Mussolini

• fascism

• fascism is opposed to democracy, but is also the purest form of democracy

• rejected class struggle and internationalism

• History driven by will, power, and myth, not by economic forces

• Fascism transcends both liberalism and socialism

Fascism: mythic core

Griffin’s mythic core: a genus of political ideology whose mythic core is a palingenetic form of populist ultra-nationalism

Fascism: thematic checklist definition

Eatwell: Three recurring themes: the “new man”, a “hollistic man”, a “third way” between capitalism and socialism

Fascism: historical process definition

Paxton: Not a fixed ideology, but a process: creation, then rooting as a party, then acquiring power, then exercising and radicalizing power

Fascism vs. communism (similarities)

• challenged liberalism: social ills believed to be associated with too much individual freedom

• Emphasized new man, new world, themes of utopianism

• Both drew from Marxism

Fascism vs. communism (differences)

• Fascism emphasizes class collaboration for national renewal, communism emphasizes class conflict

• Fascism tied more closely to nationalism

• Fascism accepts private property, but promotes a corporatist approach to economic development

• Fascism pushes an exclusive form of national identity, communism has an ideological identity

• Fascism has a less antagonistic relationship with organized religion