archaeology chapter 1 - 3

What is the history of archaeology about?

• Discoveries, theories, and research methods.

• Ideas and methods change as new evidence and technology become available.

• Interpretations are influenced by the archaeologist's time period and perspective.

What was the speculative phase of archaeology?

Early explanations of the past based on myths, religion, legends, and speculation rather than scientific evidence.

Why is Thomas Jefferson important to archaeology?

In 1784, he excavated a burial mound in Virginia, carefully observing its layers and human remains. He argued that Native American ancestors built the mounds, helping move archaeology toward evidence-based investigation.

What is stratigraphy?

The study of layers of soil and deposits at an archaeological site to understand its history and sequence of events.

What established the great antiquity of humankind?

Discoveries of stone tools alongside bones of extinct animals showed that humans had existed much longer than previously believed.

How did Charles Darwin influence archaeology?

His 1859 book On the Origin of Species explained evolution through natural selection. It encouraged archaeologists to investigate human origins as part of natural evolution.

What is uniformitarianism?

The idea that geological processes occurring today also occurred in the past. The present can help us understand the past. Associated with James Hutton and Charles Lyell.

What are the Paleolithic and Neolithic?

• Paleolithic = Old Stone Age.

• Neolithic = New Stone Age.

What is typology?

Classifying artifacts into types and sequences to identify similarities and changes over time.

What is ethnoarchaeology?

Studying living societies to understand how activities such as toolmaking, hunting, cooking, and building create archaeological remains.

What is an important limitation of ethnoarchaeology?

Living societies are not exact copies of ancient societies. They provide comparisons that help interpret evidence.

What was the main focus of archaeology during classification and consolidation?

Organizing artifacts and cultures by type, chronology, and cultural sequence to answer: "When does this artifact or culture belong?"

How did the Rosetta Stone contribute to archaeology

It helped scholars decipher Egyptian hieroglyphs. Jean-François Champollion deciphered them in 1822.

Who helped decipher Mesopotamian cuneiform?

Henry Rawlinson. Archaeologists discovered Assyrian sites and collections of cuneiform tablets.

Why were Heinrich Schliemann's excavations important?

His excavations at Troy and Mycenae demonstrated that archaeology could provide evidence about places described in ancient literature, despite his rough excavation methods.

What was the Moundbuilder myth?

The false belief that a mysterious, vanished race built North America's large burial mounds because some people wrongly assumed Native Americans could not have built them.

Who was Cyrus Thomas, and what did he demonstrate?

He studied thousands of mounds and demonstrated that they were built by the ancestors of modern Native Americans.

. What is cultural ecology

examines how societies adapt to their environments.

How did environmental archaeology change the focus of archaeology?

It shifted attention from artifacts alone toward understanding human-environment interactions and entire ways of life.

What was the main turning point in archaeology during the 1960s?

The rise of Processual Archaeology (New Archaeology), which shifted the focus from simply describing the past to explaining why cultural changes occurred.

What did Processual Archaeology emphasize?

• Scientific methods and hypotheses.

• Testing explanations against evidence.

• Quantitative methods and statistics.

• Environmental factors and social systems.

• Explaining why societies changed.

How did modern fieldwork change under Processual Archaeology?

Archaeologists increasingly used specific research questions, regional surveys, sampling, statistical methods, screening/sieving, and specialists from other disciplines.

What does it mean that archaeology became multidisciplinary?

Archaeologists began working with experts from other fields and using different scientific methods to understand the past more completely.

What is Cultural Resource Management (CRM)?

The preservation, recording, and excavation of archaeological sites threatened by construction and economic development. Also called salvage or rescue archaeology.

What is the main difference between Processual and Postprocessual Archaeology?

• Processual: emphasizes science, patterns, systems, and explanations for cultural change.

• Postprocessual: emphasizes human experiences, meanings, symbols, individual perspectives, and interpretation.

What is multivocality?

The idea that multiple groups can have different valid perspectives on the past, and archaeology should recognize these different voices.

What does postprocessual archaeology suggest about archaeological interpretations?

There may not be one universally correct interpretation. Archaeologists bring their own perspectives and assumptions to their work.

What is Indigenous archaeology concerned with?

Indigenous communities having greater control over their heritage, archaeological research, human remains, and interpretations of their past.

What is feminist archaeology, and what is androcentrism?

• Feminist archaeology challenges assumptions about gender and investigates women's activities and roles in the past.

• Androcentrism means a male-centered interpretation that overemphasizes men and their activities.

What is Çatalhöyük, and who first excavated it?

An early Neolithic farming settlement in Turkey, first excavated by James Mellaart beginning in the 1960s. It contained houses, wall paintings, bull skulls, figurines, and other symbolic objects.

How has archaeology's main research question changed over time?

• Early archaeology: What do we think happened?

• Classification and consolidation: When did it happen?

• Processual archaeology: Why did it happen?

• Postprocessual archaeology: What did it mean to different people?

How can material culture influence society?

Objects do more than reflect society. They can influence people's behaviour, relationships, identity, and social organization.

What is an artifact?

An object made or modified by humans that can be moved.

Example: a stone tool.

What is a feature?

A human-made or human-modified part of an archaeological site that is not intended to be moved.

Example: a shell midden (a deposit of discarded shells).

What is an ecofact?

Natural material found at an archaeological site that was not made by humans.

Example: an animal skull or plant remains.

What is the difference between an artifact, feature, and ecofact?

• Artifact: movable object made or modified by humans.

• Feature: something connected to a site that is not meant to be moved.

• Ecofact: natural material that was not made by humans.

What is an archaeological site?

A meaningful area of space connected by human activity. Sites can vary greatly in size, depending on the evidence and activities involved.

What is an assemblage?

A group of artifacts consistently found together that can represent a particular group of people or culture.

Example: a collection of characteristic ancient Egyptian objects.

What is a sub-assemblage?

A smaller grouping of objects related to a particular activity or use.

Example: a tool kit.

What does context mean in archaeology?

The spatial and temporal circumstances in which an archaeological object is found.

• Space: where it is located.

• Time: when it was deposited or used relative to other evidence.

What is a matrix?

The material physically surrounding or touching an archaeological object when it is found.

Examples: dirt, cement, water, or ice.

What is provenience?

The exact horizontal and vertical location of an artifact within an archaeological site or matrix.

What is provenance?

The history or origin of an object, including where it came from or how it entered a collection.

Example: an artifact's original archaeological site or collection history.

What does in situ mean?

An artifact that remains in its original place of deposition and has not been moved.

Example: pots found in their original locations at Pompeii.

What is association in archaeology?

A relationship between objects found together in a meaningful archaeological context.

Examples: stone axes found with prehistoric animal bones, or houses associated with grain-storage pits.

Why is archaeological context important?

It helps archaeologists understand an object's location, age, relationships, and possible use. Removing an object without recording its context can destroy valuable information.

What are formation processes?

The processes that transform materials from their original use in a living society into the archaeological remains found today. They affect how objects are deposited, moved, and preserved.

What are the two main types of formation processes?

• Cultural formation processes.

• Natural formation processes.

What are cultural formation processes

Human activities that affect archaeological materials before or after deposition.

• Before deposition: making, using, or discarding objects.

• After deposition: farming, conflict, settlement, or archaeological excavation that changes the remains or their location.

What are natural formation processes?

Natural events or activities that affect archaeological remains, including geological changes, disasters, weather, water, and animal or plant activity.

What is bioturbation?

The disturbance or movement of soil and archaeological materials by living organisms, such as animals, plants, and soil organisms.

Why must archaeologists study formation processes?

To determine how archaeological materials reached their present location, what happened to them, and whether their original arrangement has changed.

Which materials generally survive well archaeologically?

Inorganic materials, especially stone and fired clay, generally survive better than organic materials such as wood.

How are metals preserved differently?

• Gold, silver, and lead can survive well but may be reused.

• Copper, bronze, and iron can corrode or oxidize, depending on soil conditions.

What determines whether organic materials survive?

The surrounding matrix and climate. Preservation varies greatly depending on environmental conditions.

What is a sherd?

A broken fragment of pottery or ceramic material.

What is taphonomy?

The study of how plant, animal, and human remains accumulate, change, and are differentially preserved at archaeological sites.

Why can extreme conditions preserve organic remains?

Extreme environments can slow decomposition and protect remains from organisms and other processes that destroy them.

Give three examples of extreme conditions that preserve organic remains.

• Damp: Irish peat bogs, including the preserved body known as Old Croghan Man.

• Cold: frozen baby woolly mammoth.

• Dry: ancient Egyptian tombs.

What was the Ozette archaeological site?

A site belonging to the Makah people in Washington State, buried by a mudslide around 1750 CE and excavated in the 1970s by Richard Daugherty at the request of the tribal chairman.

Why were so many artifacts preserved at Ozette?

The mudslide buried the site, helping protect wooden objects and other materials from exposure and decomposition.

What is the Uluburun shipwreck?

A Late Bronze Age shipwreck discovered off the southern coast of Turkey in 1982. It dates to around the 14th century BCE and contained a large cargo of traded goods.

Why is the Uluburun shipwreck important?

Its cargo—including copper and tin ingots, glass, ivory, pottery, and other goods—provides evidence of long-distance trade and connections between societies during the Bronze Age.

How do archaeologists find archaeological sites?

Through surveys, historical documents, maps, books, and accidental discoveries during farming or construction. Sites may also be reported by local communities.

What are the two main types of archaeological surveying?

1. Ground reconnaissance.

2. Aerial reconnaissance.

What is ground reconnaissance?

Searching for and recording archaeological evidence by investigating an area on the ground, often by walking across it.

how can documentary sources help archaeologists find sites?

Maps, historical records, and books can provide clues about where sites are located or what may be found there.

Examples: the Bible, Homer's works, and the Madaba Mosaic.

What is salvage archaeology?

Archaeological investigation undertaken to record or recover evidence threatened by destruction, such as from construction or development.

What is reconnaissance surveying, and what are its goals?

A preliminary investigation of a region to identify archaeological sites, estimate their dates, and locate smaller settlements associated with major sites.

What are three benefits of reconnaissance surveys?

• Cheaper than excavation.

• Less destructive than excavation.

• Provides useful information about sites and the wider region.

What should archaeologists establish before beginning a survey?

Their region of study, research goals, and the area they intend to investigate.

What is an unsystematic survey?

A less structured survey used when time is limited or archaeologists already have an idea of where to search.

What is a systematic survey?

A planned survey that uses a consistent pattern, such as grids or transects, to search an area rather than simply looking wherever finds seem likely

What are transects, and why are they useful?

Planned lines or strips across a landscape that surveyors follow to search systematically and reduce the chance of overlooking evidence.

What do archaeologists collect during a surface survey?

Small samples of surface finds or photographs, especially diagnostic artifacts that help identify a site's age or cultural affiliation.

What is probabilistic sampling?

Selecting areas to survey according to a planned sampling method, often involving random selection, so archaeologists can study a region without examining every part of it.

What is a simple random sample?

Survey locations are selected randomly across the study area. Some important areas may be missed by chance.

What is stratified random sampling?

The region is divided into sections or categories, and random samples are selected within each section to ensure different areas are represented

What are systematic sampling and stratified unaligned systematic sampling?

• Systematic sampling: survey locations follow a regular pattern, such as every second grid square.

• Stratified unaligned systematic sampling: divide the region into sections, then systematically sample within each section while varying the starting point to avoid a single aligned pattern.

What is aerial reconnaissance?

Searching for archaeological evidence from the air using aircraft, photographs, or other aerial methods.

What are crop marks?

Differences in crop growth caused by buried archaeological features, such as walls, ditches, or pits. They can be easier to see from the air than from the ground.

What is the difference between oblique and vertical aerial photographs

• Oblique: taken at an angle; better for perspective and visual detail.

• Vertical: taken directly overhead; better for making maps and plans

What is remote sensing in archaeology?

Detecting or studying archaeological features from a distance without directly excavating them.

What is LiDAR, and how is it used in archaeology?

Light Detection and Ranging. It uses laser pulses to measure surfaces and can reveal archaeological features hidden beneath forest vegetation.

What is GIS in archaeology?

Geographic Information Systems: technology used to map, organize, analyze, and compare spatial information about archaeological sites and landscapes.

How can radar help archaeologists discover buried landscapes?

Radar can reveal features beneath the surface, such as an ancient river channel buried under desert sand, helping archaeologists identify places where people may once have lived.

What is subsurface detection, and why is it useful?

Investigating what lies underground before excavation. It can reduce costs, minimize damage, and help archaeologists decide where to dig

What are geophysical sensing devices?

Instruments that detect underground features by measuring physical properties of the ground, often without excavating it.

What is the difference between active and passive geophysical sensing?

• Active: sends energy into the ground and measures its response.

• Passive: measures existing physical properties, such as magnetic variations.

What is ground-penetrating radar (GPR)?

A subsurface detection method that sends radio pulses into the ground and measures reflected signals to identify buried features.

What is electrical resistivity surveying?

A method that measures how strongly the ground resists electrical current. Moisture affects conductivity, so differences can help reveal buried features

What is magnetometry?

Measuring magnetic variations in the ground to detect possible archaeological features, such as ditches, pits, and buried structures.

What are probes used for in archaeology?

Tools inserted into the ground to investigate subsurface conditions. They can provide information with less disturbance than full excavation, although they may still damage buried materials.

What is bosing (bowing)?

Striking the ground and listening to the sound. A dull sound may indicate undisturbed earth, while a resonant sound may indicate a buried ditch or pit.

What is echo sounding (sonar)?

Using sound waves and their returning echoes to measure underwater depths or detect submerged features.

What are standing-wave techniques?

Methods that strike the ground repeatedly and measure how vibrations travel through it. Differences in wave behaviour can help identify underground materials or structures

How was the Roman site of Wroxeter surveyed?

Using magnetometry and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) to map buried archaeological features. The results could be combined into composite maps.

What is a tell, and why do tells form?

A mound formed when settlements are repeatedly built on top of earlier settlements. Reusing building materials and living on higher ground can be advantageous, including for protection from flooding.

What is the difference between Pella and Tell el-Husn in your notes?

• Pella: an ancient site in Jordan with visible remains that can be recognized without excavation.

• Tell el-Husn: illustrates the tell settlement pattern, where successive settlements build up over earlier ones.

Why might archaeologists survey a region instead of excavating one site?

To identify multiple sites, understand settlement patterns, locate smaller settlements, and study how people used an entire landscape.