Psychology Chapter 8

Development

A process that begins in utero, continues through adulthood, and ends when we die 

Teratogen

Environmental agents that negatively impact human development could be mentally and or physically harmful 

Germination

This stage is the first prenatal stage and lasts from the time of conception until the second week.  

Undifferentiated Cells

Cells that do not serve a set purpose other than to rapidly multiply. 

Blastocyst

The hollowed-out ball of cells that imbed into the uterine wall 

Ectopic Pregnancy

Occurs when the fertilized egg fails to reach the uterine lining and begins to grow in the fallopian tube.

Embryonic Stage

The embryonic stage is the second stage of prenatal development. It lasts from the second week to the eighth week of life. The defining characteristic of the embryonic stage is organogenesis.

Organogenesis

The development of all major organs and body systems

Cephalocaudal Development

Development that occurs from the top-down (head develops first and then other extremities). 

Proximodistal Development

Development that occurs from the inside-out (centrally located features such as organs develop before other extremities such as fingers and toes) 

Fetal Period

This period occurs from the 9th week until the end of pregnancy (38th-40th). This period of development is characterized by refinements and finishing touches as well as significant growth .

Age of Viability

The age at which the fetus can exist outside of the womb.

Critical Period

A time frame in which the exposure to a teratogen could have detrimental effects 

Sensitive Period

A time frame in which the exposure to a teratogen could be less impactful, but the risk still exists 

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Infants exposed to alcohol during their development may be affected by this disorder. Symptoms include severe damage to internal organs such as the heart, kidneys, vision, and hearing. Altered physical characteristics are also common, such as reduced head size, below-average height, a smooth patch between the upper-lip and lower nose, and cognitive impairments, such as being retarded and hyperactivity  

Longitudinal Research

A research design that follows the same group of people over a specific time period  

Cross-Sectional Research

Participants of different ages are tested in the same study at the same time 

Reflexes

Involuntary behaviors in response to stimuli; they are usually adaptive 

Novelty Preference

The preference for infants to view information that is new to them rather than information that is old. 

Age-Related Physical Development

The child must be old enough to demonstrate the skill. 

An Environment That Supports the Behavior

The Child must have the necessary space and freedom to explore and practice new skills  

Desire (Frustration)

The child has to WANT to conduct the skill. 

Fine Motor

Motor skills that require precise movement, such as writing your name 

Gross Motor

Motor skills that require the movement of larger muscle groups, such as running or catching a ball. 

Assimilation

Occurs when we encounter information for the first time and apply what we already know about the stimulus to make generalizations 

Accommodation

Occurs when we create a new cognitive structure to allow for information that does not fit within what we currently know. 

Disequilibration

When what exists in the outside world does not fit within the child's cognitive structures 

Equilibration

Maintaining agreement with the outside world and the reality that exists in a child’s mind  

The Sensorimotor Stage

The first of Jean Piaget’s stages. Occurs from birth to two years of age. During this age, infants develop an understanding of the world with two primary methods: motor skills and their senses. A major development during this stage is being able to perceive object permanence.

Object Permanence

the idea that objects continue to exist even when babies lose sight of them. (Part of sensorimotor stage)

The Preoperational Stage

The second of Jean Piaget’s stages. Occurs from ages two to seven years old. This stage is characterized by heightened creativity and imagination. A defining feature of this stage is symbolic thought

Symbolic Thought

When one object is able to serve as a symbol for another (part of preoperational stage)

Egocentric Thought

Children are cognitively incapable of thought that occurs outside the self.  (part of preoperational stage)

Theory of Mind

A concept that states that our mental lives are private and independent (Obtained at age 4-5). (part of preoperational stage)

Animism

The belief that inanimate objects have thoughts and feelings.  (part of preoperational stage)

Conservation

The idea that certain properties of an object remain the same despite physical changes in its appearance (part of preoperational stage)

Centration

Focusing on one property of an object while disregarding all other components.  (part of preoperational stage)

The Concrete Operational Stage

This is the third of Jean Piaget’s stages. This stage lasts from the ages of seven to twelve years of age. During this stage, children move away from the use of creativity and focus on “here and now” thinking.  They are able to make sense of the world around of them, but not so much of hypothetical situations. Black and white thinking with very little grey thinking. Scientific and logical thinking increase, while creativity and imagination decrease. Conducting experiments and hypothesis is now regular.

The Formal Operational Stage

This is Piaget’s fourth and final stage. This is the final stage of development and lasts from puberty and through adulthood. During this stage, we are capable of understanding both elements of creativity and logic 

Scaffolding

A cognitive process in which a teacher provides support to allow the learner to develop new skills and traits. Support is then withdrawn when the learner can conduct the behavior on their own. 

Zone of Proximal Development

The gap between what a child can do and what they can do with help 

Imprinting

Young organisms may be biologically predisposed to form relationships with adult of their species 

Attachment Style

A characteristic way of responding to close others, such as parents, friends, and romantic partners. 

Secure Attachment

An attachment style where individuals trust the caregiver to interpret the situation. Child uses the caregiver as a base to interpret the world around them: if the caregiver is in stress then the child will be in stress. Infants become stressed when the caregiver leaves the room and become happy again once they return back. 

Insecure-Avoidant Attachment

An attachment style depicted by minimal anxiety when left alone with a stranger and shows little distress when the caregiver is absent. Infants do not approach the caregiver for comfort and are not excited when the caregiver returns. In many cases, the infant may actively avoid the caregiver and minimize interactions. Children still feel stress when their caregiver leaves and feel better when they return, which was proven with the use of biological markers. They just don’t know how to express 

Insecure-Resistant

An attachment style where the individual is clingy and anxious before the caregiver even leaves the room. When the caregiver returns to the room, the child is often angry that they were left alone, shown by hitting and kicking the caregiver. 

Disorganized Attachment

This attachment style is characterized by extreme fear and dissociation. The child behaves oddly, such as wanting to approach the caregiver while also moving away. This could be a sign of child abuse. This attachment style is rare, only about 15% 

Temperament

Biologically based differences in how infants respond to the world

Easy Babies

Tend to be cheerful, adapt to new situations easily, and settle into predictable routines 

Difficult Babies

Tend to react more intensely, slower to adapt, and are more easily upset and harder to soothe 

Slow-to-Warm-up Babies

are in between the easy and difficult range. They tend to be cautious and withdraw from new experiences at first, but warm up gradually as they adjust. 

Goodness of Fit

Refers to how well a child’s temperament matches the expectations, style, and environment of their caregivers. 

Heinz Dilemma

There is really expensive medicine that is not affordable. Is it wrong to steal it to save someone’s life?

Pre-Conventional Morality

moral decisions are driven purely by direct, self-centered consequences such as punishment, rewards, or the exchange of favors.

conventional morality

people judge right and wrong based on societal expectations, laws, and the desire to gain social approval or maintain order

post-conventional morality

individuals base their moral decisions on abstract, self-chosen ethical principles and universal values that may supersede traditional laws or societal norms.

Puberty

A period of rapid development throughout the body, which is brought about by the increases in sex hormones (estrogen (F), testosterone (M)). 

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical differences that are not tied to reproduction, these include change in body shape, vocal qualities, and body hair growth. These are brought by the onset of puberty 

Menarche

A girl’s first menstrual period and is usually the last pubertal change to occur. 

Adolescent Egocentrism

The idea that teens think that their peers are watching them and thinking about their actions at all times. 

Exploration

Trying on different identities

Commitment

Taking steps toward committing to an identity

Foreclosed Identity

Individuals who have prematurely decided who they are 

Identity Diffusion

Those who have not made any decisions or commitments about their identities 

Psychosocial Moratorium

People who have not made a commitment to a certain identity and are exploring various options (Identity Crisis) 

Identity Achievement

Those who have completed their quest for identity and have committed to who they believe in themselves to be.  

Dementia

the deterioration of brain function that negatively impacts cognitive processes. 

Alzheimer's Disease

This disease is characterized by impairments in memory, language, and other cognitive functions. Other symptoms include confusion, depression, and psychological deterioration of skills that are needed for day to day use.  

Social Clock

An idea that represent cultural norms about appropriate times for key life events to occur. 

Secure/Autonomous Adults

These people tend to react to relationships in a positive manner. They are confident and comfortable in their ability to become emotionally close to others and enjoy a balance of closeness and independence in these relationships. 

Anxious/Preoccupied Adults

These people have an attachment style that parallels the insecure-resistant attachment style in infants. Adults in this stage tend to feel uncomfortable with independence and strive for constant intimacy and closeness to their intimate relationships. These people tend to have a difficult time trying to find a romantic partner 

Dismissive-Avoidant Adults

These people have no issue living without close emotional relationships. These people believe that relationships will compromise their independence and often avoid relationships at all costs 

Fearful-Avoidant Adults

These adults desire intimacy, however, they are concerned with the possibility of being hurt or rejected. These people give mixed signals, sometimes seeking connection and other times pulling away.  

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

This theory predicts that we become more selective about how we choose to spend out social and emotional energy as we age.  

lifespan

how long you live

healthspan

how many of those years are healthy and active

Brain Dead

The permanent and irreversible loss of all brain functions, including the brainstem structures that control basic reflexes and breathing.  

Trust vs Mistrust

This first stage covers birth to 12-18 months of age. The infant’s most fundamental goal is to develop a basic sense of trust in their caregivers. Erikson’s first stage again highlights the vital role of attachment. Erikson believed that infants were entirely dependent on others for their basic physical needs: safety, security, and comfort. 

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

This is the second stage encompassing toddlers. Independence becomes the primary concern of babies once they gain the ability to be motile Toddlers are consistently pushing the boundary of what they can say and do (limit testing to learn) 

Erikson believed that children should be allowed to explore the world to gather a sense of independence. He believed that practicing these skills would later grow into self-esteem and confidence. If the toddler is constantly met with doubt and concern, they might begin to become anxious about their own abilities and feel shame as a result. Erikson believed that parents should take a hands off approach to parenting. 

Initiative vs. Guilt

This is the third stage. In early childhood, the ability to develop trust and autonomy develops into a desire to take initiative. Initiative is the ability to generate ideas or actions independently. Erikson believed that parent should allow children to take the lead in choosing activities and praise their creativity. Parents should not be over-critical over mistakes, which are bound to happen. Guilt makes a child feel that their actions are wrong and stops them from acting further. If a child is punished or scolded, they will most likely refrain from behaving wrongly. This is not a harmful thing to do: rules must be followed, especially when it comes to safety. Children often associate their self-concept with external characteristics at this age, so acting bad does not equal being bad. Guilt can prevent children from being creative, which is negative for learning 

Industry vs. Inferiority

This is the fourth stage. During middle and late childhood, children are gaining a sense of how they measure when compared with their peers. This may be academically or socially. Erikson believed that children who are successful develop a sense of industry which will give them confidence for future challenges. Industry: The development of a strong work ethic. Children with a sense of industry have a healthy attitude toward work and recognizing the skills they need to succeed. Children who are unable to build industry, feelings of inferiority can prevent them from achieving their potential. Inferiority: A sense of worthlessness that develops from negative self-assessments, especially when comparing oneself with others. Children who believe that they are inferior believe that they are incapable of doing anything well. This prevents them from trying new things  

Identity vs. Role Confusion

This is the fifth stage. According to Erikson, the main goal of adolescence is to achieve a sense of identity 

The sense of identity involves collecting the knowledge that we obtain throughout life to represent the different aspects of who we are. This process includes considering questions about appearance, career choices, education, relationships, sexual orientation, political views, personality, and interests. It includes that our weaknesses are as much a part of us as our strengths. Erikson believed that our teen years were a period of experimentation. At the end of this stage, Erikson believed that adolescents gain a more clear and consistent view of themselves. This is called identity. The ability to obtain an identity could be hindered if adolescents are unable to explore the world around them. These can be negative towards the individual because they may partake in illegal or unhealthy activities. Most adolescents leave their teen years without gaining a full sense of identity. Identity is fully formed during the young adult years 

Intimacy vs. Isolation

This is the sixth stage. Erikson believed that relationships did not have to romantic to be intimate: family and friends could fill in this role. The long-term bonds we develop with a romantic partner are a large part of how we establish intimacy in young adulthood. During the early years of adulthood (18-25), most young adults are practicing the skills necessary to maintain long-term relationships with others. This involves a lot of trial and error. During this process, many young adults learn what they want in a relationship and how to be a good partner. The Trust vs. Mistrust stage now transfer into adult relationships. If young adults fail to form close relationships, they will become socially isolated. This can occur if the earlier stages were not successfully resolved 

Generativity vs. Stagnation

This is the seventh stage. Erikson defined generativity as a term for productivity, creativity, and procreativity. Generation includes development of new products, ideas, and emphasis to give back. Generativity is the stage during which people are focused on their legacy after they die. Raising kids is the most defining part of this stage. Management of home and work life is a major stressor during this period. Generative adults tend to score high in extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and agreeableness, and low on neuroticism. Women generativity studies depict satisfaction with motherhood, marriage, and positive personality traits. Men generativity studies depict higher cognitive function, which includes memory, calculation, and attention, as well as executive functioning, such as response inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and abstract thinking. This is paired with lower levels of depression 

Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Integrity vs Despair allows us to cope with aging. During this stage, we look back and decide to focus on opportunities we missed and things we did. Older adults must accept how their life turned out. This stage is also characterized by accepting the flaws of others. This incudes their peers and parents. Acceptance of these things will lead to integrity and denial will cause despair. Those in despair will experience resentment and bitterness, rather than wisdom.