Module 1 AP Psychology

central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sensory organs

Sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflexes

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee

neurons

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life

dendrite

a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

axon

a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; it enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

all

or

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

“morphine within” — natural, opioid

agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action

antagonists

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action

endocrine system

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

biological psychologists

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social

three levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social

neuroplasticity

the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

lesion

tissue destruction. Brain lesions may occur naturally (from disease or trauma), during surgery, or experimentally (using electrodes to destroy brain cells)

EEG (electroencephalogram)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

MEG (magnetoencephalography)

a brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity.

CT (computed tomography) scan

a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure.

PET (positron emission tomography)

technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure.

hindbrain

consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; directs essential survival functions, such as breathing, sleeping, and wakefulness, as well as coordination and balance.

midbrain

found atop the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with the forebrain, controls some motor movement, and transmits auditory and visual information.

forebrain

consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities.

brainstem

the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

medulla

the hindbrain structure that is the brainstem’s base; controls heartbeat and breathing.

thalamus

the forebrain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; it filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

cerebellum

the hindbrain’s “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

limbic system

neural system located mostly in the forebrain — below the cerebral hemispheres — that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary gland; associated with emotions and drives.

amygdala

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

hypothalamus

a limbic system neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories — of facts and events — for storage.

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain’s cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information

frontal lobe

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead. They enable linguistic processing, muscle movements, higher

parietal lobe

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; it receives sensory input for touch and body position.

occipital lobe

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; it includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

parietal lobe

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; it includes the auditory areas, each of which receives information primarily from the opposite ear. They also enable language processing.

motor cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

somatosensory cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

prefrontal cortex

forward part of the frontal lobes enables judgment, planning, social interactions, and processing of new memories

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons.

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.