Psych Midterm 2 (Bio, Development, Personality)

longitudinal study

research that follows and tests the same people over time

cross sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at same point in time

stages of prenatal development

zygote - conception to 2 weeks

embryo - 2 wks to 8 wks

fetus - 9 wks to birth

placenta - brings oxygen and nutrients

teratogens

substances that can damage an embryo or fetus

fetal alcohol syndrome

occurs in children of women who consume large amounts of alcohol during pregnancy

habituation

decreased responding with repeated stimulation

adolescence

transition period from childhood to adulthood

puberty

period of sexual maturation during which person capable of reproducing

menopause

natural end of menstrual cycle - biological changes as ability to reproduce decline

schemas

concepts or mental molds into which we pour our experiences

assimilation

adding new example into existing schema

accommodation

if he example doesn’t fit schema, we receive correction and modify understanding

sensorimotor stage

birth to 2 yrs old where infants know world with senses and movement

object permanence

awareness that objects continue to exist even when not perceived

preoperational stage

2-7 yrs old where child learns to use language but not as logical

conservation

principle that properties such as mass, volume; and number remains same despite changes in forms of objects

egocentrism

preoperational child’s difficulty taking another point of view

theory of mind

ability to think about mental states, both own and those of others

concrete operational stage

7-11 yrs, children gain mental operations that enable them to think logically about events

formal operational stage

begins around 12 yrs where people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

neglectful parenting

parents careless, inattentive, don’t seek close relationship w/ child

authoritarian

parents impose rules and demand obedience

authoritative

parents set rules but allow open discussion and exceptions

self-concept

understanding and assessment of who you are

secure vs insecure attachment

secure: comfortably play w/ caregiver, temporary distress and comfort when return

insecure: clingy, anxious, remain upset

strange situation

mary ainsworth observed mother infant pairs at home during first 6 months, later observed 1 year old infants in strange situation w/o mothers

temperament

refers to characteristic patterns of emotional reactions and self regulation

separation and stranger anxiety

fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning at about 8 months

harlow’s attachment study

harry and margaret harlow raised moneys with two artificial mothers; one bare wire and wooden head with feeding bottle, other with no bottle but covered in cloth - preferred the cloth mother

identity

sense of self unifies various selves into consistent and comfortable sense of who one is

emerging adulthood

18-mid 20s, many people no longer adolescents but haven’t achieved full independence as adults

social clock

culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, retirement

ACE (adverse childhood experiences)

traumatic events or adverse conditions experienced in childhood

nature-nurture issues

long-standing controversy over contributions genes & experience make to development of traits & behaviors

evolutionary perspective

study of evolution of behavior and mind, uses principles of natural selection

epigenetics

study of molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression

genes

small segments of giant DNA molecules, biochemical units of heredity

twin/adoption studies

adoptees tend to be more similar to biological parents than adoptive

identical/fraternal twins

identical: develop from single fertilized egg split, genetically identical

fraternal: 2 separate fertilized eggs, genetically like normal siblings

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord; decision maker responsible for coordinating incoming sensory & outgoing motor messages

spinal cord

2 way info highway connecting PNS and the brain

peripheral nervous system

sensory & motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to rest of body

autonomic nervous system

controls glands and muscles of internal organs, part of peripheral nervous system

somatic nervous system/skeletal nervous system

controls body’s skeletal muscles, part of peripheral nervous system

parasympathetic nervous system

division of autonomic nervous system that calms body, conserves energy

sympathetic nervous system

division of autonomic nervous system that arouses body, mobilizes energy

neurons

a nerve cell; basic building block of nervous system

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming info from body’s tissues to brain and spinal cord

motor neurons

carry outgoing info from brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons in brain and spinal cord that communicate internally & process info between sensory inputs & motor outputs

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

all-or-none response/principle

neuron’s reaction of either firing (w/ a full strength response) or not firing

refractory period

a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired

resting potential

when a neuron is not firing & has a negative charge

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

threshold

level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

synapse

open space between 2 neurons which neurotransmitters cross

neurotransmitter

chemical messenger that crosses synaptic gaps between neurons

dopamine

movement, thought process, rewarding sensation

hyperactivity = schizophrenia

deficit = Parkinson’s

serotonin

affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

low levels depression, PTSD

GABA

major inhibitory transmitter

low levels can produce anxiety

endorphins

neurotransmitters that influence perception of pain and pleasure

norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

glutamate

major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

excess can cause seizures

acetylcholine (Ach)

enables muscle action, learning, and memory

undersupply = Alzheimer’s

hormones

chemical messengers made by endocrine glands that travel in blood and affect tissues

adrenaline

increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar

pituitary gland

pea sized structure in core of brain, controlled by hypothalamus

agonists

molecules that increase a neurotransmitter’s action

antagonists

molecules that block neurotransmitters action

reuptake inhibitors/SSRIs

popularly prescribed antidepressants that block reuptake of serotonin

brainstem

central core of brain; responsible for automatic survival functions

hindbrain

medulla, pons, cerebellum; directs essential survival functions

midbrain

atop brainstem, connects hindbrain w/ forebrain, controls some motor movement and transmits audio and visual info

medulla

brainstem base; controls heartbeat and breathing

reticular activating system/reticular formation

nerve network that travels thru brainstem into thalamus; filters info

cerebellum

hindbrain’s “little brain” at rear of brainstem; process sensory input, coordinated movement output and balance

cerebral cortex

body’s ultimate control and info processing center

limbic system

hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus

thalamus

forebrains sensory control center on top of brainstem; directs messages to sensory receiving areas in cortex

hypothalamus

limbic system neural structure; directs several maintenance activities

hippocampus

neural center in limbic system; helps turn short-term memories into long term

amygdala

2 neural clusters in limbic system; enables aggression and fear

corpus callosum

connects 2 brain hemispheres, carries messages between them

occipital lobe

back of head, includes areas that receive info from visual fields

temporal lobe

roughly above ears, enable language processing and includes auditory areas

parietal lobe

top of head and toward rear, receives sensory input for touch and position

somatosensory cortex

front of parietal lobes, registers and processes body touch & movement sensations

frontal lobe

behind forehead, enable muscle movements and higher order thinking

motor cortex

cerebral cortex area at rear of frontal lobes, controls voluntary movements

split brain/research

condition resulting from surgery that isolates 2 hemispheres

broca’s area

language center in left frontal lobe, expressive language

wernicke’s area

language center in left temporal lobe, receptive language

aphasia

impairment of language caused by left hemisphere damage

neuroplasticity

brains ability to change by reorganizing after damage or building new paths

EEG

amplified recording of waves of electrical activity across brain

fMRI

reveals blood flow and brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans

reliability

results that can be replicated, researchers must meticulously write out instructions

validity

if it measures what we think it should measure

-correlating scores on test w/ other variables

traits

relatively enduring characteristics that influence our behavior across many situations