Pols Test 2

political parties

coalitions of people who form a united front to win control of government and implement policy

partisanship

identification with or support of a particular party or cause

party heuristics

cues people use to identify candidates, policy issues, or regular people as affiliating with one political party or another

proportional representation

a multimember district system that allows each political party representation in proportion to its percentage of the total vote

plurality system

a type of electoral system in which, to win a seat in the parliament or other representative body, a candidate need only receive the most votes in the election, not necessarily a majority of the votes cast

Duverger's law

a law that holds that plurality-rule elections, where the winner has the most votes but not necessarily a majority within single-member geographic districts, tend to result in a two-party system, whereas proportional representation tends to result in a multiparty system

two-party system

a political system in which only two parties have a realistic opportunity to compete effectively for control

political polarization

the division between the two major parties on most policy issues, with members of each party unified around their party's positions with little crossover

party identification

an individual voter's psychological ties to one party or another

retrospective voting

voting based on the past performance of a candidate or political party

party activists

partisans who contribute time, energy, and effort to support their party and its candidates

independents

people not formally aligned with a political party; also called unaffiliated

affective polarization

the emotional dislike of members of the other party

negative partisanship

a phenomenon in which people form strong opinions against a political party rather than in support of one

minor parties

parties that organize to compete against the two major American political parties

party organization

the formal structure of a political party, including its leadership, election committees, active members, and paid staff

political action committee (PAC)

a private group that raises and distributes funds for use in election campaigns

majority party

the party that holds the majority of legislative seats in either the House or the Senate

minority party

the party that holds the minority of legislative seats in either the House or the Senate

interest group

an organized group of people or institutions that uses various forms of advocacy to influence public policy

pluralism

the theory that all interests are and should be free to compete for influence in the government; the outcome of this competition is compromise and moderation

collective goods

benefits sought by groups that are broadly available and cannot be denied to nonmembers

free riders

those who enjoy the benefits of collective goods but did not participate in acquiring or providing them

informational benefits

special newsletters, periodicals, training programs, conferences, and other information provided to members of groups to entice others to join

material benefits

special goods, services, or money provided to members of groups to entice others to join

solidary benefits

selective benefits of group membership that emphasize friendship, networking, and consciousness-raising

purposive benefits

selective benefits of group membership that emphasize the purpose and accomplishments of the group

lobbying

a strategy by which organized interests seek to influence the passage of legislation by exerting direct pressure on government officials

iron triangle

the stable, cooperative relationship that often develops among a congressional committee, an administrative agency, and one or more supportive interest groups; not all of these relationships are triangular, but the iron triangle is the most typical

issue network

a loose network of elected leaders, public officials, activists, and interest groups drawn together by a specific policy issue

insurrection

a violent uprising against government; the act of revolting against civic authority or an established government

protest

participation that involves assembling crowds to confront a government or other official organization

suffrage

the right to vote; also called franchise

voter turnout

the percentage of eligible individuals who actually vote

digital political participation

activities designed to influence politics using the internet, including visiting a candidate's website, organizing events online, and signing an online petition

socioeconomic status

status in society based on level of education, income, and occupational prestige

gender gap

a distinctive pattern of voting behavior reflecting the differences in views between women and men

midterm elections

congressional elections that do not coincide with a presidential election; also called off-year elections

primary elections

elections held to select a party's candidate for the general election

general election

a regularly scheduled election involving most districts in the nation or state, in which voters select officeholders; in the United States, general elections for national office and most state and local offices are held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November in even-numbered years (every four years for presidential elections)

closed primary

an election in which voters select candidates but only of the party in which they are enrolled

open primary

a primary election in which the voter can wait until the day of the primary to choose which party to enroll in to select candidates for the general election

same-day registration

the option in some states to register on the day of the election, at the polling place, rather than in advance of the election

early voting

the option in some states to cast a vote at a polling place or by mail before the election

frontloading

the moving up of presidential primaries by states to provide those states greater influence on the selection of candidates

delegate (in political parties)

a representative to national party conventions who votes according to the preferences of voters in caucus and primary elections

superdelegate

(in the Democratic Party) an unelected party member/leader who is free to support any candidate for the presidential nomination at the party's national convention. They are only allowed to vote if no candidate has a majority after the first round of voting

party platform

a party document, written at a national convention, that contains party philosophy, principles, and positions on issues

electoral college

the presidential electors from each state who meet after the general election to cast ballots for president and vice president

campaign

an effort by political candidates and their supporters to win the backing of donors, political activists, and voters in their quest for political office

incumbent

a candidate running for re-election to a position that the candidate already holds

political action committee (PAC)

a private group that raises and spends money for election campaigns but is not run by an individual candidate. PACs are administered by corporations, labor unions, membership groups, or trade associations. They can donate money to parties or candidates they support

527 committees

nonprofit organizations such as parties, committees, or associations that operate primarily to influence the election of candidates for public office. Political action committees (PACs) and Super PAC groups are 527 committees

Super PACs

nonprofit independent political action committees that may raise unlimited sums of money from corporations, unions, and individuals but are not permitted to contribute to or coordinate directly with parties or candidates

dark money groups or 501(c)(4) committees

politically active nonprofit social welfare groups; these nonprofits can spend unlimited amounts on political campaigns and not disclose their donors so long as their activities are not coordinated with the candidate campaigns and political activities are not their primary purpose

grassroots campaigns

political campaigns that operate at the local level, often using face-to-face communication to generate interest and momentum by citizens

micro-targeting

a campaign strategy that uses data and demographics to identify the interests of small groups of like-minded individuals and deliver tailored ads or messages designed to influence their voting behavior

mobilization

the process by which large numbers of people are organized for a political activity

Constituency 

is a distinct geographical area—and the body of registered voters living within it—that elects one or more representatives to a legislative or governing body

Trustee

a representative who votes based on what they think is best for their constituency

delegate (member of Congress role)

a representative who votes according to the preferences of their constituency

descriptive representation

a type of representation in which representatives have the same racial, gender, ethnic, religious, or educational backgrounds as their constituents; it is based on the principle that if two individuals are similar in background, character, interests, and perspectives, then one can correctly represent the other’s views

substantive representation

a type of representation in which representatives are held accountable to their constituency if they fail to represent that constituency properly; this is incentive for representatives to provide good representation when their personal background, views, and interests differ from those of their constituency

Incumbency

holding the political office for which one is running

pork barrel (or pork)

appropriations made by legislative bodies for local projects that are often not needed but that are created so that local representatives can win re-election in their home districts

Apportionment

the process, occurring after every decennial census, that allocates congressional seats among the 50 states

Redistricting

is the process of redrawing the geographical boundaries of electoral districts for the U.S. House of Representatives, state legislatures, and local governing bodies.

Gerrymandering

is the political manipulation of electoral district boundaries to give one political party, group, or socioeconomic class an unfair advantage

Conference

a gathering of House Republicans every two years to elect their House leaders; Democrats call their gathering the caucus

A caucus

is a meeting or organization of political party members, elected officials, or voters who share common goals, coordinate strategy, or select candidates

The Speaker of the House

is the presiding officer of the U.S. House of Representatives, the de facto leader of the majority party, and second in the line of presidential succession after the Vice President

A majority leader

is the elected leader of the political party that holds the most seats in a legislative body, such as the U.S. Congress or a state legislature

minority leader

the elected leader of the minority party in the House or Senate

Whip

a party member in the House or Senate responsible for coordinating the party’s legislative strategy, building support for key issues, and counting votes

A standing committee

is a permanent, ongoing panel found in a legislative body (such as the U.S. Congress) or a formal organization that handles specific policy areas or recurring tasks

Markup

the session in which a congressional committee rewrites legislation to incorporate changes discussed during hearings on a bill

A select committee (or special committee)

is a legislative committee appointed to examine, investigate, or consider a specific issue, bill, or task that falls outside the scope or capacity of permanent standing committees

joint committees

legislative committees formed of members of both the House and Senate

A conference committee

is a temporary, joint panel composed of members from both the House of Representatives and the Senate, created to resolve differences when each chamber passes a different version of the same bill

A staff agency

legislative support agencies responsible for policy analysis

Bill

a proposed law that has been sponsored by a member of Congress and submitted to the clerk of the House or Senate

Open rule

a provision by the House Rules Committee that permits floor debate and the addition of new amendments to a bill

Closed rule

a provision by the House Rules Committee limiting or prohibiting the introduction of amendments during debate

filibuster

is a procedural tactic in a legislative assembly—most famously the U.S. Senate—where a lawmaker or group of lawmakers uses extended debate, long speeches, or procedural delays to block, stall, or prevent a final vote on a bill, resolution, or nomination

Cloture

a rule or process in a legislative body aimed at ending debate on a given bill; in the U.S. Senate, 60 senators (three-fifths) must agree in order to impose a time limit and end debate

Roll call votes

a vote in which each legislator’s yes or no vote is recorded as the clerk calls the names of the members alphabetically

Veto

the president’s constitutional power to turn down acts of Congress; a presidential veto may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress

Pocket veto

a presidential veto that is automatically triggered if the president does not act on a given piece of legislation passed during the final 10 days of a legislative session

Unorthodox lawmaking

a set of legislative procedures that deviates from regular order; reflects a greater level of control from party leaders and less deliberation from members

Multiple referral

the practice of referring a bill to more than one committee for consideration

ping-pong

is the process of reconciling differences between two chambers of a legislature by sending a bill back and forth until both chambers agree on identical text

Appropriations

the amounts of money approved by Congress in statutes (bills) that each unit or agency of government can spend

omnibus appropriations bill

is a single, massive piece of legislation that combines multiple smaller ordinary appropriations bills into one package to fund the federal government with a single up-or-down vote in each chamber of Congress

Party unity vote

a roll-call vote in the House or Senate in which at least 50 percent of the members of one party take a particular position and are opposed by at least 50 percent of the members of the other party

Polarization

the deep ideological distance between the two parties

Oversight

the deep ideological distance between the two parties

Impeachment

the formal charge by the House of Representatives that a government official has committed “Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors”

expressed powers

specific powers granted by the Constitution to Congress (Article I, Section 8) and to the president (Article II)

commander in chief

the role of the president as commander of the national military and the state National Guard units (when called into service)

executive agreement

an agreement, made between the president and another country, that has the force of a treaty but does not require the Senate's “advice and consent”