Psychology Exam 1

Chapter 1 and Chapter 5

Theories

A well tested explanation of some aspect of the natural world that has corroborating evidence and can be tested through the scientific method

Hypothesis

A testable explanation for a phenomenon, based on observations and able to be supported or refuted by experiments or observation

How theories and hypotheses differ

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation or prediction made before research while a theory is a well-established explanation supported by extensive evidence and research. Theories are broader and integrate data from multiple studies, whereas hypotheses are specific and testable

Properties of a good theory

1. Productivity- a good theory leads researchers to many new findings; it makes predictions about what should happen

2. Falsifiability- a theory must be testable in a way that it can potentially be proven false through observation or testing

3. Parsimony- the principle that the simplest explanation, requiring the fewest assumptions, is preferred when evaluating competing theories

4. Explanatory power- its ability to effectively explain the subject matter it addresses and predict outcomes, and provide meaningful insights

Case study

An in-depth, detailed examination of a specific subject, such as a person, group, organization, or event often used to derived broader insights in real world contexts

Survey

A method of gathering information by asking people questions to understand their opinions or behaviors

Experiment

A test done in controlled conditions where you carry out a series of actions and observe the results to discover something new, check if something works, or test a hypothesis

Correlation design

Used to measure and analyze the strength and direction of relationships between two or more variables without manipulating them. It helps identify whether a relationship exists and the nature of that relationship, but it cannot establish causation

Laboratory observation

Observing behavior in a controlled environment where variables can be manipulated and extraneous factors controlled. This method allows researchers to systematically record behavior and establish cause and effect relationships more than in natural settings

Naturalistic observation

research method where subjects are observed in their natural environments without any interference or influence from the observer. This approach allows researchers to father authentic data and behaviors as they occur in real world settings

Participant observation

A researcher immerses themselves in social settings, actively engaging with participants while observing their behaviors and interactions. This approach allows them to get an insider’s perspective

Positive correlation

Both variables move in the same direction (when one variable increases, the other variable also tends to increase. When one decreases the other also decreases)

Negitive correlation

The variables move in opposite directions (when one variable increases, the other tends to decrease)

The absolute value of a correlation

Indicates the strength of the relationship between the two variables regardless of the direction

Why can’t you make causal claim based on a correlation (Third variable problem)

When an observed correlation between two variables is caused by a hidden, unmeasurable third variable

Indepentent variable

The variable that is manipulated

Control condition

An experimental setup in which participants do not receive the treatment or intervention being tested, serving as a baseline for comparison with the experimental group. It helps researchers determine whether observed changes are due to the treatment itself rather than other factors

Placebo condition

A control group set up where participants recieve a fake treatment that looks identical to the real intervention but contains no active ingredients. It isolates the real effects.

Single- blind studies

Experimenter knows who is in what group but the subjects do not

Double blind studies

Neither experimenter nor subjects know who is in what group

The case of clever Hans

Describes how humans or animals in experiments unconsciously pick up subtle, unintentional cues or biases from researchers, altering their behavior to match experiments

Sample

The sample is a smaller subset taken from a population

Population

An entire group you want to study

Random assignment

An experimental technique where researchers use chance procedures to place study participants into different groups, such as a treatment group or a control group. This establishes cause and effect as well as it reduces selection bias

Quasi- experiment

A quantitative research study that tests for a cause-and-effect relationship but lacks random assignment to participants in groups

Why would we use quasi experiments

Ethical constraints- you can’t assign people to harmful or beneficial conditions randomly

Practical limits- you cant disrupt existing real wolrd groups such as schools

Lower cost and speed

what percentage is considered statistically significant?

0.05 (5%)

Classical conditioning

a type of learning where a neutral signal is paired with a naturally occurring reflex until the two become associated

Classical Conditioning: Extinction

When a conditioned response gradually weakens and disappears because the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus

Spontaneous recovery

The sudden reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period

Stimulus generalization

The tendency of a person to respond to new, similar stimuli in the same way they learned to respond to an original conditioned stimulus

Stimulus discrimination

The ability to tell the difference between similar cues and react only to the correct one is

Discrimination training

a behavioral teaching method where a person learns to respond differently to specific cues and stimuli

Little Albert and the white rat

Demonstrated how human emotions like fear could be learned through classical conditionig

Taste aversions

When you develop a lasting dislike or nausea for a specific food after getting sick just once after eating it

Whats special about taste aversions

1. Single-trial learning

2. Can have long delays

3. Biological preparedness (evolution)

Operant conditioning

a learning process where voluntary behavior is modified by its consequences, such as rewards or punishments

Reinforcement

A consequence that strengthens a behavior, making it more likely to happen again in the future

Primary reinforcement

Have innate, unlearned value because they satisfy basic and biological, survival needs

Secondary reinforcement

Secondary reinforcement in psychology refers to stimuli that acquire their reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers, such as food or water. Examples include money or praise, which can motivate behavior by being linked to basic needs or desires

Positive reinforcement

Adding a desire stimulus right after a behavior to strengthen that behavior

Negative reinforcement

Strengthens a behavior by removing or avoiding an unpleasant or painful stimulus right after a behavior occurs

Punishment

A consequence that decreases or stops an unwanted behavior

When punishment works

1. Immediate application: right after the behavior

2. Absolute consistency: every single time a behavior happens

3. Clear alternative: positive alternative behavior

4. Sufficient intensity: strong enough from the start

When punishment fails

1. Temporary suppression: only stops when punishment is around

2. Emotional response: triggers fear, anxiety, anger, or resentment

3. Aggression: physical or severe punishment models aggressive behavior

4. Avoidance tactics: learning to become more sneaky

5. No new skills: failing to teach desirable replacement behaviors

Operant Conditioning: Extinction

The gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned behavior when the reinforcing consequence is no longer provided

Shaping

A method where you reward small, step-by-step actions that get closer and closer to a final goal behavior

Reinforcement Schedules

Rules that decide when a reward is given to increase the chance of a behavior happening again

Continous Reinforcement

The behavior is rewarded every single time it happens

Partial Reinforcement

The behavior is rewarded only some of the time

Fixed Ratio

The reward comes after a set, exact number of behaviors

Variable Ratio

The reward comes after an unpredictable number of behaviors

Fixed Interval

The reward comes after a set, exact amount of time

Variable interval

The reward comes after a changing and unpredictable amount of time

Latent learning

The subconscious retention of information or skills without immediate reinforcement, reward, or conscious intent

Observational learning

The process of acquiring new skills, behaviors, and attitudes by watching and imitating others rather than through direct experience or formal instruction

Bobo doll study

Children watched adults punch, hit with a mallet, and yell at an inflatable bobo doll, or they watched adults play quietly with toys. Children were then faced with mild frustration and ended up doing the same thing the adults they were watching did. (observational learnin)

Operant vs Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning pairs an involuntary response with an involuntary automatic response to a trigger, while Operant conditioning pairs voluntary behavior with a reward or punishment