psychology memory topic

Define encoding, storage, and retrieval in the processes of memory.

Encoding: translating information into a form so it can be held in the brain. Storage: keeping information in the brain for a period of time. Retrieval: locating information and bringing it back out.

Define visual, acoustic, and semantic encoding.

Visual: stored visually (seeing in the mind). Acoustic: stored based on sound (hearing in the mind). Semantic: stored in terms of meaning and understanding.

Define the three types of retrieval: Recognition, Cued Recall, and Free Recall.

Recognition: identifying previously learned material (e.g., multiple choice). Cued recall: retrieving information with a hint. Free recall: retrieving information without any cues.

Describe the flow of information through the Multi-Store Model (MSM).

Environment -> Sensory Register -> Attention -> Short-Term Memory (STM) -> Maintenance Rehearsal -> Prolonged Rehearsal -> Long-Term Memory (LTM). Information is brought from LTM back to STM via Retrieval.

State the exact coding, capacity, and duration of the Sensory Register.

Coding: form appropriate for the sense. Capacity: Unlimited. Duration: less than half a second.

State the exact coding, capacity, and duration of Short-Term Memory (STM).

Coding: Mainly acoustically. Capacity: 7 +/- 2 items (5-9 items). Duration: less than 30 seconds.

State the exact coding, capacity, and duration of Long-Term Memory (LTM).

Coding: Mainly semantically. Capacity: Potentially unlimited. Duration: Potentially a minute to a lifetime.

State one strength and one weakness of the Multi-Store Model (MSM).

Strength: Supported by Murdock, proving separate stores via primacy/recency effects. Weakness: Oversimplified; research shows STM and LTM are not single unitary stores, but have different types (e.g., episodic/semantic).

Define procedural, semantic, and episodic memory stores, their declarative status, and brain locations.

Procedural: non-declarative memory of motor skills/actions (Cerebellum/Motor Cortex). Semantic: declarative memory of facts/world knowledge, not time-stamped (Temporal Lobe). Episodic: declarative memory of life events, explicitly time-stamped (Hippocampus).

How does the case of Clive Wearing evaluate the types of LTM?

His episodic memory was damaged (forgot past events/education), but his procedural memory worked (could play piano), proving separate stores. However, it lacks population validity as a unique single-case study.

State the aim, procedure, and findings of Murdock's serial position curve study.

Aim: To investigate separate STM/LTM stores and if word list length affects memory. Procedure: 103 students heard 20 word lists (10-40 words long) from common English words, then did free recall. Findings: High recall at start (primacy effect, went to LTM) and end (recency effect, still in STM), low recall in middle.

Evaluate Murdock's study in terms of internal and ecological validity.

Strength: High controlled lab experiment with standardized procedures (internal validity). Weakness: Artificial task of recalling randomized word lists (low ecological validity).

Define reconstructive memory and 'effort after meaning.'

Reconstructive Memory: active process where fragments of stored data are reassembled and gaps filled by expectations/beliefs. Effort after meaning: changing unfamiliar details to fit existing cultural/social expectations/schemas to make sense.

State the aim, procedure, and results of Bartlett's 'War of the Ghosts' study.

Aim: To investigate how an unfamiliar story is affected by cultural expectations. Procedure: British participants read a Native American story twice, then used serial reproduction to retell it. Results: Story became shorter (330 to 150 words), omissions occurred (titles dropped), and details changed (canoes became boats).

State one strength and one weakness of Bartlett's 'War of the Ghosts' study.

Strength: Highly reliable; successfully replicated findings across other stories/pictures. Weakness: Prone to researcher bias; Bartlett analyzed the recalls himself and decided what counted as accurate.

Define proactive and retroactive interference, with an example for each.

Proactive: old memory interferes with new information (e.g., struggling to recall a new phone number due to knowing the old one). Retroactive: new memory interferes with old information (e.g., a new car registration prevents recall of an old one).

Explain how context affects the accuracy of memory.

External triggers (cues like sights/smells) are encoded at the time of learning; being placed back in that environment recreates associations to aid recall, while an absence of context causes forgetting.

Define false memories.

When an individual reconstructs or remembers something that has not actually happened, creating memories that feel entirely real but are fabrications.