Unit 3 & 4: Big Data, Privacy, and Cybersecurity

Vocabulary review covering big data properties, storage architectures, password security, statistical processing, machine learning, cryptography, cyber threats, and ethics.

Big Data

Extremely large and complex sets of data that exceed the capabilities of traditional data processing methods to handle effectively, characterized by volume, velocity, and variety.

Volume (Big Data)

The characteristic of big data referring to massive dataset sizes, commonly spanning from terabytes ($10^{12}$ bytes) to exabytes ($10^{18}$ bytes) or larger.

Velocity (Big Data)

The rapid and continuous generation and streaming of data in real-time or near real-time, such as sensor feeds, social media updates, and online financial transactions.

Variety (Big Data)

The wide range of formats and types encompassed in big data, including structured, unstructured, and semi-structured formats.

Structured Data

Information that follows a clear, predefined format or organization, such as a spreadsheet with rows and columns where each column represents a specific attribute.

Unstructured Data

Information that lacks a predefined organization or schema, such as a mixed collection of photographs, letters, drawings, and scraps of paper.

Semi-Structured Data

Data that does not conform to a strict relational structure but includes tags, labels, or organizational markers to separate elements, such as a contact list containing names, numbers, and optional notes.

Distributed File System

A storage architecture that divides large files into smaller parts and stores them across multiple networked computers or servers rather than on a single hard drive.

Node

An individual computer or server within a distributed file system that stores a portion of the data and coordinates with other nodes to manage storage and retrieval.

Data Warehouse

A centralized data repository organized into structured tables specifically optimized for querying, comparative analysis, and business analytics.

Cloud Storage

A virtual storage model where digital files are maintained and managed on remote servers across the internet within secure commercial data centers.

Brute Force Attack

A password-cracking method in which automated software systematically tries every conceivable combination of characters or keys until it finds the correct one.

Dictionary Attack

An attack method where software systematically tests common words, phrases, and dictionary terms to break an authentication credential.

Social Engineering

The psychological manipulation and deception of individuals into voluntarily handing over sensitive credentials or personal information.

Credential Stuffing

A cyberattack that takes automated advantage of databases of leaked usernames and passwords from prior breaches to breach accounts across other platforms.

Passphrase

A memorable sequence of words used in place of a standard password that is easy for the user to recall but difficult for attackers or automated systems to guess (e.g., "HappyBuffaloLovesPizza").

Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA)

An access control procedure requiring a user to supply two or more distinct pieces of evidence to authenticate identity before gaining access.

Data Security

Protective practices implemented to protect digital data from unauthorized access, breach, corruption, or destruction, maintaining confidentiality, integrity, and availability.

Privacy Protection

The preservation of an individual's right to control the collection, storage, sharing, and responsible use of their personal data.

Personally Identifiable Information (PII)

Any personal information that can be used to distinguish or trace an individual's identity, such as names, email addresses, Social Security numbers, or birth dates.

Computing Bias

Systematic and unfair outputs produced by computing systems resulting from unrepresentative data sets, biased algorithmic logic, or human prejudices during development.

Creative Commons

A public copyright licensing system that enables content creators to grant others the legal right to share, use, and build upon their copyrighted work.

Open Source

Software whose underlying code is made freely available to the general public, permitting redistribution, examination, and modification.

Open Access

Online research output that is distributed free of all access restrictions and free of most licensing or copyright limitations.

Crowdsourcing

The practice of gathering ideas, data, services, or contributions from a broad group of people via an online platform to solve problems or create products.

Data Cleaning

The phase of data processing where raw datasets are inspected to correct errors, fill missing data, eliminate duplicates, and standardize inconsistent formatting.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical metrics that summarize the basic characteristics of a dataset using single representative values, such as the mean for the center or the range for the spread.

Correlation Analysis

A statistical evaluation that determines whether patterns or associations exist between two or more variables, without implying direct causation.

Regression Analysis

A statistical modeling technique used to predict the expected value of one variable based on known values of another variable.

Extrapolation

The error of applying a regression model's relationship to estimate values outside the range of observed data points, resulting in inaccurate predictions.

Hypothesis Testing

A statistical process used to establish whether an observed difference or relationship between variables is statistically significant or merely attributable to random chance.

Machine Learning

A computational approach where systems analyze training datasets to identify underlying patterns and make automated decisions without being explicitly programmed.

Data Mining

The practice of searching through large volumes of data to discover previously hidden patterns, correlations, trends, or anomalies.

Data Visualization

The visual communication of data insights through charts, graphs, and interactive dashboards to help stakeholders understand complex patterns.

Metadata

Descriptive data that provides contextual details about other data, such as a file's name, size, creation date, and format.

Encryption

The process of converting plain text into an unreadable format known as ciphertext using a cryptographic algorithm and a key.

Ciphertext

The unreadable, scrambled version of data produced through the encryption process, requiring a specific decryption key to read.

Decryption

The process of unlocking and converting ciphertext back into its original readable plain text format using a key.

Symmetric Encryption

An encryption method in which the exact same single secret key is shared by the sender and receiver to both encrypt and decrypt data.

Caesar Cipher

An ancient symmetric cipher in which each plain text letter is shifted a fixed number of positions down the alphabet.

AES-128

A widely adopted symmetric block cipher standard approved by the federal government that uses a 128-bit key and ten cycles of mathematical transformations.

SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security)

Cryptographic security protocols that utilize symmetric encryption to secure data transmission between web browsers and servers over HTTPS.

Asymmetric Encryption (Public Key Encryption)

An encryption scheme employing a mathematically linked pair of keys: a public key for encrypting messages and a private key for decrypting them.

Public Key

A cryptographic key in asymmetric encryption that can be shared openly and is used by senders to encrypt data intended for the key's owner.

Private Key

A confidential cryptographic key in asymmetric encryption that is kept secret by its owner and is required to decrypt data locked by the paired public key.

Computing Innovation

The translation of an idea or invention into a good or service that creates value, including hardware, software, networking, user interfaces, or analytical tools.

Cookie

A small amount of text stored on a user's web browser that tracks activity across website pages and personalizes browsing experiences.

Phishing

A social engineering attack where fraudulent emails or messages disguise themselves as trusted entities to trick users into revealing sensitive private credentials.

Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS)

A cyberattack where an attacker floods a target web resource with excessive requests from multiple sources to exceed its capacity and prevent normal functioning.

Rogue Access Point

A wireless network access point installed on an organization's network without the explicit authorization or permission of the network owner.

Trojan

A destructive malware program disguised as legitimate, harmless software to trick a user into downloading and installing it.

Adware

Software designed to automatically generate and display pop-up advertisements to users on their devices.

Spyware

Malicious software that covertly monitors user activities, steals data, and sends the gathered information back to the malware creators.

Keylogger

A surveillance program or hardware device that records all keystrokes and user input and transmits the logs back to its creator.

Antivirus Software

A protective computer program that scans files, identifies malware signatures, and prevents or eliminates malicious software infections.

Ransomware

A category of malware that holds a computer or dataset hostage by encrypting user files and demanding payment in exchange for the decryption key.

Firewall

A network security system that monitors and filters incoming and outgoing network traffic based on an organization's established security policies.