physiology to learn

carbohydrates involved in mechanical digestion

polysaccharides (many)

carbohydrates in chemical digestion

1. amylase (from pancreas) in the duodenum converts to disaccharides

2. brush border enzymes to monosaccharides

carbohydrates movement through apical membrane

sodium coupled secondary active transport

carbohydrates movement through bilateral membrane

facilitated diffusion using glucose-transporter (drives water absorption by osmosis)

mechanical digestion of proteins

protein (many)

chemical digestion of proteins

1. acid and pepsin in the stomach converts to polypeptides (20+)

2. protease from pancreas converts to small peptides in the duodenum (10+)

3. Brush border enzymes convert to amino acids (1) and short peptides (2-3)

movement of proteins through the apical membrane

sodium coupled secondary active transport

movement of proteins through basolateral membrane

facilitated diffusion with amino acid co-transporter. drives water to be absorbed by osmosis

mechanical digestion of lipids/fats

triglycerides (3)

lipids/fats in chemical digestion

Lipase from pancreases, assisted by bile salts from duodenum converts to 2x free fatty acids (1) and Monoglyceride (1)

lipid/fat movement through apical membrane

emulsification by bile salts and segmentation to form micelle. Simple diffusion after micelle breakdown

lipid/fat movement through cell

Monoglycerides and fatty acids break down into triglycerides and other lipids. Chylomicrons form

lipi/fat movement through basolateral membrane

exocytosis of chylomicrons

at what voltage do Na + gates open

-60mV

what voltage does the membrane potential increase till

+30mV

what happens when the membrane potential reaches +30mV

Na+ gates close and K+ channels open

to what voltage does K+ leave the cell

-80mV

how is the RMP restored after dropping to -80mV

Na/k + ATPase pump

what is hypotension

drop in blood pressure

how is postural hypotension caused

when we are laying down the gradient of pressure through our body is lower. standing suddenly causes blood to pool in the veins = lower venous return = lower SV and CO = drop in blood pressure

what is the most important factor in Fick’s law

pressure gradient as its need to create a driving force

what is the equation for minute ventilation

frequency x tidal volume

what is the equation for alveolar volume

(tidal volume - dead space volume) x frequency

what is a left shift in the oxyhemoglobin curve

occurs in the lungs and causes increased loading

what causes a left shift in the oxyhemoglobin curve

lower levels of CO2/H+ and lower temperature

what is a right shift in the oxyhemoglobin curve

occurs in the tissue and results in increase release of oxygen

what causes a right shift in the oxyhemoglobin curve

higher levels of CO2/H+ and high temperature

what are the two ways which oxygen is transported in blood

combined with haemoglobin - 98%, dissolved in plasma

what is the main way which oxygen is transported in the blood

combined with haemoglobin

what are the 3 ways in which CO2 is transported in blood

dissolved in plasma - 7%, combined with haemoglobin - 23%, as a bicarbonate (HCO3) - 70%

what is the main way which CO2 is transported in blood

as a bicarbonate (HCO3)

what does the androgenic anabolic steroid work in males

mimics testerone negative feedback in the brain and anterior pituitary gland

what does the androgenic anabolic steroid work in females

mimics estrogen negative feedback in the brain and anterior pituitary gland

how does PCOS work

impairment of negative feedback, leading to increased testosterone levels

effect of ADH in kidney

stimulates kidney cells to reabsorb water back into blood, increases blood volume and pressure

effect of ADH on blood vessels

vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure

what does menopause signal

the end of the female reproductive life span and is characterised by a loss of gonadal steroid hormones and feedback

what happens to reproductive hormones in menopause

estrogen falls dramatically as well as progesterone and testosterone. GNRH/LH/ FSH rise

process of systemic inflammation

inflammatory cells (neutrophils and macrophages) infiltrate fat, accumulate in obesity. inflammatory cytokines secreted in high amounts. Inflammation leads to tissue degeneration and organ dysfunction

How is systemic inflammation different from acute inflammation

inflammatory trigger is metabolic, mediated by metabolic cells (adipocytes), not immune cells (initially), moderate to low grade, and self sustaining

what type of cell is insulin secreted from

beta

what type of cell is glycogan secreted from

alpha

what type of nerve activation does arousal require

parasympathetic

what happens in arousal for males

penile arteries dilate, erection

what happens in arousal for females

dilation of arteries, increase blood pressure, lubrication

what type of nerve activation does orgasm require

sympathetic

orgasm in male

contraction of vas deferens, ejection of semen

orgasm in females

rhythmic contractions of vaginal and uterine muscles

what does the pancreas do

release of digestive enzymes, production of beta and alpha cells to control blood sugar levels

what enzymes does the pancreas release

amylase, lipase and protease. sodium bicarbonate to neutralise stomach acidity

muscles used during normal inspiration

external intercostals and diaphragm

muscles used during forced inspiration

accessory muscles, external intercostals and diaphragm

muscles used during normal expiration

No muscle contraction

muscles used during forced expiration

internal intercostals and abdominal muscles

what does cortisol target/do

muscle and fat uptake less glucose. liver increases glucose production

What does IGF-1 target and control

liver and fat for fuel mobilisation, all cells for growth

what do androgenic receptors agonists do

active alpha and beta adregenic receptors

what are the 3 systems in the integrated stress response

1. indirect control through releasing hormones

2. direct release of hormone in posterior pituitary

3. Direct control by nervous system

what are the hormones used in indirect control of the integrated stress response

CRH - ACTH - cortisol

what are the hormones are used in direct release of hormone from the posteria pituitary of the integrated stress response

ADH

what are the hormones are used in direct by the nervous system of the integrated stress response

adrenaline and noradrenaline

what hormones do leydig cells produce

testerone

what hormone does sertoli cells produce

inhibin

what hormones do granulosa and theca cells produce

estrogena and progesterone

what does the enteric nervous system in the GI tract do

stimulates absorption of nutrients into blood