Lec 3: The Positive School, Biology and Psychology

The Positive School

A movement led by doctors and scientists that shifted the focus of criminology toward scientific exploration, observation, measurement, and experimentation to explain the "causes" of crime.

The Classical School

A movement led by writers and philosophers that focused on implementing a modern and fair justice system. Operating on the core assumption that human beings are rational decision-makers possessing free will.

Determinism

The core premise of the Positive School that criminal behaviour is determined by biological, psychological, and social forces beyond a person's individual control (contrasting with the Classical emphasis on free will and rationality)

Pre-Darwinian Physical Theories

Early attempts to link physical features to human traits → Craniometry, Phrenology, & Physiognomy

Craniometry

Measuring the size of the brain or skull

Phrenology

Examining distinctions or "bumps" in the skull

Physiognomy

Analyzing facial and bodily features.

The Criminal Man (1876)

The seminal book by Cesare Lombroso (a former Italian army physician) created an inflection point in criminological theorizing and became the dominant text for decades. Western societies had an immediate response. His theory brought together pre-Darwinian “Theories”

Atavism (Atavistic)

Lombroso's concept that serious criminals are biological "throwbacks" to an earlier, lower form of evolutionary development. Also discussed other offenders- mental illness, “criminoloid”

Born Criminals

According to Lombroso, these are the most serious and violent offenders who cannot be stopped; he argued society must target them early for crime prevention.

Stigmata

Physical manifestations of atavism—facial or bodily deviations from the norm (e.g., unusual jaws, eyes, ears) as well as extraphysiological features like tattoos. Possessing 5 or more stigmata led an individual to be labelled a "born criminal".

Lombroso's Policy Implications

Lombroso and his students (such as Ferri and Garofalo) frequently testified in court on guilt or innocence based on stigmata. His work influenced policies surrounding slavery, deportation, and fascist/Nazi movements aimed at removing perceived "inferior" groups.

Alfred Binet & The Original IQ Test

Introduced the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) calculated as mental age/chronological age * 100, Average – 100. Binet’s original objective was benevolent. The objectives behind IQ testing were to identify slow learners, and importantly, he believed that IQ could be changed.

H.H. Goddard

A prominent U.S. authority who twisted Binet's work by assuming IQ was static, innate, and unchangeable. He became the authority on IQ testing in the U.S. 

Feeblemindedness

Goddard’s term for individuals with low IQ.

Ellis Island Testing & Deportation

Goddard used IQ tests on incoming immigrants at Ellis Island, leading to dramatic increases in deportations (a 350% increase in 1913 and 570% in 1914).

Compulsory Sterilization

Policy of forcibly sterilizing individuals (disproportionately women) deemed "feebleminded". This practice was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in Buck v. Bell (1927) and was not halted until the 1970s.

Body-Type Theory (Somatotyping)

Developed by William Sheldon in the 1940s, this theory brought together biology and psychology. Argued that during the embryonic/fetal stages of development, individuals have an emphasis on the development of tissue layers based on heredity. This leads to body type and personality/temperament.

• Scores on 3 dimensions on a scale of 1-7.

  • For example, if someone scored a 3 on endomorphy, a 6 on mesomorphy, and a 2 on ectomorphy = they would be considered a Mesomorph

Endomorphic

Focus on the inner tissue layer (organs, stomach, intestines, etc.), resulting in an obese build.

Temperament: Viscerotonic (lazy, comfortable).

Mesomorphic

Focus on the middle tissue layer (muscles, bones, ligaments), resulting in an athletic, muscular build. Sheldon identified them as having the highest association with criminality.

Temperament: Somotonic (risk-taking, aggressive).

Ectomorphic

Focus on the outer tissue layer (skin, capillaries), resulting in a thin build.

Temperament: Cerebrotonic (introverted, shy).

Methodological Criticisms of Somatotyping

Relying on subjective judgment from staff based only on photos, as well as failing to account for how diet and exercise alter body shape (which Sheldon dismissed by claiming he could spot a "natural" body type visually).

Biosocial Perspective

Examines crime through the interaction between physiology/heredity ("nature") and environmental factors ("nurture").

Twin Studies

Compares concordance rates between Monozygotic (MZ/identical) twins (sharing 100% genotype) and Dizygotic (DZ/fraternal) twins (sharing 50% genotype). Higher concordance among identical twins suggested a genetic influence on delinquency.

Adoption Studies (Mednick)

Research in Copenhagen compared biological vs. adoptive parent criminality:

• Highest criminality among youth with both biological and adopted parents who have been convicted of offending.

• Criminality of an individual's biological parents has a greater predictive effect than that of adopted parents.

• The least criminality was found with neither biological nor adopted parents convicted of offending.

Methodological Issue with Adoption Studies

There is an issue with adoption studies because adoption agencies had a selective placement policy, which biased results of the research.

Twins Separated at Birth

Identical twins raised in different environments still exhibited similar criminal tendencies, reinforcing biosocial arguments.

Personality Traits

Relatively stable ways of perceiving, thinking about and behaving toward the environment and oneself. Clusters of related form a "super-trait" (e.g., low self-control or psychopathy).

Psychopathy & Hare’s PCL-R

A collection of personality traits introduced initially by Cleckley (The Mask of Sanity) and formalized by Robert Hare into the 20-item Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) (including traits like superficial charm, grandiose self-worth, lack of remorse, impulsivity, and criminal versatility). Used in probation and violent risk assessments