psyc 2 short

Learning

Lasting change in knowledge or behavior from experience.

Classical conditioning

Learning an association between two stimuli.

Signal (classical conditioning)

A cue that predicts another event.

Temporal contiguity

Events occurring close together in time.

Acquisition (classical conditioning)

First learning the CS–US association.

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

Stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

Unconditioned response (UR)

Natural, unlearned response to the US.

Neutral stimulus

Stimulus that initially does not trigger the target response.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Previously neutral stimulus that triggers a learned response.

Conditioned response (CR)

Learned response to the CS.

Delay conditioning

CS starts before and overlaps the US.

Stimulus generalization (classical conditioning)

Responding to stimuli similar to the CS.

Stimulus extinction (classical conditioning)

Repeated CS without US weakens the CR.

Spontaneous recovery

An extinguished CR returns after a pause.

Conditioned taste aversion

Avoiding a flavor associated with illness.

Operant conditioning

Learning from a behavior's consequences.

Consequence (operant conditioning)

Outcome following a behavior that changes its likelihood.

Law of Effect

Rewarded behaviors increase; unpleasantly followed behaviors decrease.

Reinforcement

A consequence that increases behavior.

Positive reinforcement

Adding something desirable to increase behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant to increase behavior.

Escape learning

Acting to stop something unpleasant already happening.

Avoidance learning

Acting to prevent something unpleasant from happening.

Punishment

A consequence that decreases behavior.

Punishment by application

Adding something unpleasant to decrease behavior.

Punishment by removal

Removing something desirable to decrease behavior.

Shaping (operant conditioning)

Reinforcing steps toward a target behavior.

Acquisition (operant conditioning)

Initial learning of a behavior through consequences.

Extinction (operant conditioning)

Behavior weakens when reinforcement stops.

Schedules of reinforcement

Rules for when behaviors receive reinforcement.

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing every target response.

Partial reinforcement

Reinforcing only some target responses.

Fixed ratio schedule

Reward after a set number of responses.

Variable ratio schedule

Reward after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed interval schedule

Reward the first response after a fixed time.

Variable interval schedule

Reward the first response after varying time intervals.

Learned helplessness

Giving up after experiencing uncontrollable unpleasant events.

Nonassociative learning

Changed response to one repeated stimulus.

Habituation

Decreased response to a repeated harmless stimulus.

Sensitization

Increased response after intense or repeated stimulation.

Observational learning

Learning by watching others and their outcomes.

Modeling

Learning by observing and imitating others.

Vicarious reinforcement

Increasing behavior after seeing someone else rewarded.

Vicarious punishment

Decreasing behavior after seeing someone else punished.

Applied behavior analysis (ABA)

Using learning principles to teach skills and change behavior.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

Neurodevelopmental differences in communication and behavior patterns.

Antecedents (ABA)

Events just before a behavior.

Behaviors (ABA)

Observable actions being measured or taught.

Consequences (ABA)

Events following a behavior that influence its recurrence.

Positive reinforcement (ABA)

Adding a valued outcome to increase target behavior.

Shaping (ABA)

Reinforcing gradual steps toward a target skill.

Generalization (ABA)

Using a learned skill in new situations.

Cognition

Mental processes for knowing, remembering, and thinking.

Thinking

Mentally working with ideas and information.

Memory

Encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Information-processing model

Memory as stages of receiving, holding, and storing information.

Memory encoding

Converting information into a storable form.

Sensory memory

Very brief storage of sensory input.

Attention

Selecting information for further processing.

Short-term memory

Brief, limited storage of information.

Working memory

Briefly holding and manipulating information.

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it active.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units.

Long-term memory

Durable storage of information.

Memory storage

Keeping information over time.

Explicit memory

Consciously recalled facts and events.

Semantic memory

Memory for general facts and knowledge.

Episodic memory

Memory for personal experiences.

Implicit memory

Memory shown without conscious recall.

Procedural memory

Memory for skills and habits.

Memory retrieval

Bringing stored information back to mind.

Free recall

Remembering without hints or answer choices.

Cued recall

Remembering with a hint.

Retrieval cue

A hint that helps recall.

Recognition

Identifying something encountered before.

Forgetting

Failure to retrieve learned information.

Forgetting curve

Forgetting is fastest soon after learning.

Encoding failure

Information was never properly stored.

Decay theory

Unused memory traces weaken over time.

Interference theory

Other memories disrupt learning or recall.

Retroactive interference

New learning disrupts old memories.

Proactive interference

Old learning disrupts new memories.

Suppression (memory)

Deliberately keeping a memory from awareness.

Memory errors

Inaccuracies in remembered information.

False memory

Remembering something inaccurately or that never happened.

Flashbulb memories

Vivid emotional-event memories that can still be inaccurate.

Elaboration

Linking new information to existing knowledge.

Serial position effect

Best recall for the first and last items.

Encoding specificity principle

Recall improves when retrieval cues match encoding cues.

Shallow processing

Encoding surface details rather than meaning.

Deep processing

Encoding meaning and connections.

Self-reference effect

Better recall for information related to oneself.

Spaced practice

Studying across sessions separated by time.

Massed practice

Studying in one long session.

Prospective memory

Remembering to do something later.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change with experience.

Localized memory function

Some memory functions rely on specific brain regions.

Distributed memory function

Memories involve networks across brain regions.

Prefrontal cortex

Supports working memory, planning, and retrieval.

Hippocampus

Forms new explicit memories.