AP Psychology Unit 3: Development

Cross-Sectional Study

A research method that compares participants of different ages at one point in time, providing insights into developmental differences across age groups.

Longitudinal Study

A research method that follows the same group of participants over a period of time, allowing researchers to observe changes and developments as individuals age.

Lifespan

The lifespan perspective examines human development across the entire lifespan, from birth to death, emphasizing the interplay of biological, social, and cultural factors.

Stability and Change

Degree to which individuals maintain their qualities or behaviors over time, as well as the changes they undergo due to various influences throughout their lifespan.

Nature and Nurture

The nature and nurture debate explores the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to human development and behavior.

Continuous and Discontinuous Stages

The concept of continuous and discontinuous stages of development refers to the debate on whether development is a gradual, cumulative process (continuous) or a series of distinct, separate phases (discontinuous), each characterized by different behaviors and abilities.

Teratogen

Any agent that causes malformation in a developing fetus, such as drugs, alcohol, or infections.

Rooting Reflex

An automatic response in newborns to turn their head and open their mouth when the cheek is stroked, aiding in breastfeeding.

Visual Cliff Apparatus

A device used to test depth perception in infants and animals, consisting of a glass-covered drop-off that creates an illusion of a cliff.

Critical (Sensitive) Period

A specific time frame during development when an organism is particularly sensitive to certain environmental stimuli, which can strongly influence abilities or behaviors.

Adolescent Growth Spurt

A rapid increase in height and weight that occurs during puberty, marking the transition into adolescence.

Puberty

The stage of developmental maturation where an individual experiences physical changes leading to sexual maturity, including growth spurts, development of secondary sexual characteristics, and hormonal changes.

Primary Sex Charecteristic

The physical features directly involved in reproduction, such as the ovaries in females and the testes in males.

Secondary Sex Characteristic

The physical features that develop during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction, including breast development in females and facial hair in males.

Menarche

The first occurrence of menstruation in females, marking the onset of reproductive capability.

Spermarche

The first occurrence of ejaculation in males during puberty, marking the beginning of their reproductive capability.

Menopause

The time in a woman's life when menstrual cycles permanently cease, typically occurring in their late 40s to early 50s, marking the end of reproductive ability.

Piaget

A prominent developmental psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development in children, which outlines how thinking and reasoning evolve through four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Sensorimotor Stage

The first stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, occurring from birth to about 2 years old, where infants learn about the world through their senses and actions.

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be perceived. This concept typically develops during the sensorimotor stage.

Conservation

The principle that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance, which develops during the concrete operational stage of Piaget's theory.

Reversibility

The cognitive ability to understand that objects can be changed and then returned to their original form. This principle is developed during the concrete operational stage in Piaget's theory.

Animism

The belief that inanimate objects have feelings, thoughts, and intentions, common in young children as they engage with their environment.

Egocentrism

The inability to take the perspective of others, characteristic of children in the preoperational stage of Piaget's theory.

Theory of Mind

The understanding that others have thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and desires that may differ from one's own, allowing for better social interactions and empathy. This concept develops in early childhood.

Preoperational Stage

A stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, occurring between ages 2 and 7, characterized by egocentrism, animism, and the development of language and symbolic thought but lacking understanding of concrete logic.

Concrete Operational Stage

The third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, occurring between ages 7 and 11, where children begin to think logically about concrete events and understand the concept of conservation.

Formal Operational Stage

The final stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, starting at around age 11, where individuals develop the ability to think abstractly, reason logically, and formulate hypotheses.

Vygotsky

A Russian psychologist known for his sociocultural theory of cognitive development, emphasizing the role of social interaction and cultural context in learning.

Scaffolding

A teaching method that involves providing support and guidance to learners so they can achieve tasks they cannot complete independently.

Zone of Proximal Development

The difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can achieve with guidance from a more knowledgeable person. This concept highlights the potential for learning in a supportive environment.

Crystalized Intelligence

Refers to the ability to use learned knowledge and experience. Unlike fluid intelligence, it remains stable or even increases with age.

Fluid Intelligence

The capacity to reason and solve new problems independently of previously acquired knowledge. It involves adaptability and problem-solving in novel situations.

Dementia

A decline in cognitive function severe enough to interfere with daily life, characterized by memory loss, impaired reasoning, and changes in behavior.

Phonemes

The smallest units of sound in speech that can distinguish one word from another. Phonemes are essential for understanding language and its structure.

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language, which can be words or parts of words, such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words.

Semantics

The study of meaning in language, including the interpretation and significance of words, phrases, and sentences.

Grammar

The system of rules that governs the structure of sentences in a language, including syntax and punctuation. Grammar enables effective communication by establishing how words and phrases can be combined.

Syntax

The set of rules that dictates the structure and order of words in sentences, determining how words combine to create meaningful phrases. Syntax plays a crucial role in effective communication.

Cooing Stage

The cooing stage is an early phase of language development in infants, typically occurring between 6 to 8 weeks of age, characterized by the production of soft vowel sounds and coos as a form of vocalization.

Babbling Stage

The babbling stage is a developmental phase in infants, occurring around 4 to 6 months of age, characterized by the repetition of consonant-vowel combinations, such as "ba" and "da," as they practice their speech-making skills.

One-Word Stage

A developmental stage in language acquisition during which infants typically use single words to convey entire ideas or meanings, usually occurring around 12 to 18 months of age.

Telegraphic Stage

A phase of language development in toddlers, typically occurring between 18 to 24 months, where they begin to use two to three-word combinations that convey meaning without grammatical markers, resembling telegrams.

Overgeneralization

Occurs when children apply basic grammar rules to irregular cases, such as saying "goed" instead of "went." This reflects their developing understanding of language.

Ecological System Theory

A theoretical framework developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner that emphasizes the complex interplay between an individual's development and their social environment, including various systems such as family, school, and culture.

Microsystem

The immediate environment in which an individual interacts, including family, peers, and school, that has a direct influence on their development.

Mesosystem

The interconnections between various microsystems in a person's life, such as the relationships between their family and school interactions, which influence their overall development.

Exosystem

The broader social systems that indirectly impact an individual's development, such as community services, parents' workplaces, and local government. These systems do not involve the individual directly but still affect their experiences and opportunities.

Macrosystem

The broader societal and cultural influences on an individual's development, including socioeconomic status, cultural values, and government policies.

Chronosystem

The patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course, including sociohistorical contexts, that influence development.

Authoritarian Parenting

A parenting style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness, where parents exert strict control over their children with little warmth or emotional support.

Authoritative Parenting

A parenting style characterized by high demands and high responsiveness, where parents provide guidance and support while also setting clear boundaries for their children.

Permissive Parenting

A parenting style characterized by low demands and high responsiveness, where parents are lenient and indulgent, allowing children significant freedom with few expectations.

Secure Attachment

A strong emotional bond between a child and caregiver, characterized by trust, comfort, and a sense of safety which fosters healthy development.

Insecure Attachment

A type of attachment characterized by anxiety, fear, or avoidance in relationships, often resulting from inconsistent or unresponsive caregiving, which can hinder emotional and social development.

Avoidant Attachment

a type of insecure attachment where children avoid closeness and emotional connection with their caregiver, often appearing indifferent or aloof.

Anxious Attachment

A type of insecure attachment characterized by anxiety and uncertainty in relationships, where children may cling to their caregiver yet feel overwhelmed by the fear of abandonment. This attachment style often results from inconsistent caregiving.

Disorganized Attachment

A type of insecure attachment where children display a lack of clear attachment behavior, often showing confusion or contradictory behaviors toward their caregiver. It is often linked to traumatic experiences or inconsistent caregiving.

Separation Anxiety

A developmental disorder characterized by excessive fear or anxiety regarding separation from a parent or caregiver, commonly observed in children.

Cloth vs Wire Monkey Studies

These studies conducted by Harry Harlow explored attachment in baby rhesus monkeys, demonstrating that infants preferred to cling to a soft, cloth-covered surrogate mother over a wire mother that provided food, highlighting the importance of comfort and affection in attachment.

Parallel Play

A type of play where children play alongside each other without direct interaction, often observed in preschool-aged children. It helps develop social skills and independence.

Pretend Play

A form of play where children use imagination and creativity to act out roles and scenarios, often involving make-believe and symbolic representation, contributing to cognitive and social development.

Adolescent Egocentrism

A developmental phase where adolescents are overly focused on themselves and believe that others are as interested in their behaviors and experiences as they are, often leading to feelings of invulnerability and self-consciousness.

Imaginary Audience

A phenomenon in adolescent egocentrism where teenagers believe that they are constantly being watched and judged by others, leading to heightened self-consciousness and anxiety.

Personal Fable

A component of adolescent egocentrism where teenagers believe their experiences and feelings are unique, leading to a sense of invulnerability and a belief that no one else can truly understand them.

Emerging Adulthood

A transitional period between adolescence and full-fledged adulthood, typically occurring from ages 18 to 25. It is characterized by exploration of identity, instability, and a focus on possibilities.

Attachment Theory

A psychological model that describes the dynamics of long-term relationships between humans, particularly focusing on the bonds formed between infants and their caregivers.

Psychosocial Stages

A theory developed by Erik Erikson that outlines eight developmental stages individuals go through from infancy to late adulthood, each characterized by a specific psychological conflict that contributes to personal growth.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Stressful or traumatic events that occur during childhood, which can negatively impact emotional and physical health throughout life.

Achievement

A measure of how well an individual has succeeded in educational or personal goals, often reflected in specific accomplishments, skills acquired, or knowledge gained.

Diffusion

is a stage in Erikson's psychosocial theory where individuals lack direction or commitment, often seen in adolescents as they explore different identities.

Foreclosure

A stage in Erikson's psychosocial theory where individuals commit to an identity without exploration, often adopting the values and beliefs of others.

Moratorium

A stage in Erikson's psychosocial theory where individuals actively explore options and form commitments, often seen in adolescents taking time to find their identity.

Identities Developed: racial, gender, sexual orientation, religious, occupational, familial

These are various aspects of a person's identity that can be shaped by personal experiences, social interactions, and cultural influences, which contribute to an individual's overall sense of self.