section 4 pls

Metonymy

When the name of a place or object is used to represent something else, such as Washington representing the federal government.

Interest Group

An organization that tries to influence government decisions and public policy.

Public Interest Group

A group that supports policies meant to benefit the general public. Examples include Greenpeace, Sierra Club, and ACLU.

Private Interest Group

A group that supports the interests of its members. Examples include the NRA, NOW, and NAACP.

Economic Interest Group

A group that represents the financial interests of workers, businesses, or industries.

AARP (American Association of Retired Persons)

One of the largest interest groups in the United States, representing the interests of older Americans.

Lobbying

When interest groups try to influence government officials and public policy.

Hard Money

Money donated directly to a political candidate or campaign that is subject to legal contribution limits.

Soft Money

Money given to political parties or political activities outside direct candidate contributions, often referring to money raised outside federal contribution limits.

Bundling

Collecting campaign donations from multiple people and combining them to support a candidate.

Advocacy Ads

Political advertisements that support or oppose a candidate or issue, often paid for by outside groups.

Political Action Committee (PAC)

An organization that raises and donates money to support political candidates or campaigns.

Super PAC

A political committee that can raise and spend unlimited money independently but cannot coordinate directly with candidates or their campaigns.

527 Group

A tax-exempt political organization created to influence elections or political activities.

Issue Networks

Loose and sometimes temporary relationships between interest groups, government officials, and experts who share a common policy goal.

Weaknesses of Campaign Finance Laws

Loopholes that allow political groups to influence elections through soft money, bundling, and advocacy advertisements.

Public Opinion

What the general public thinks or believes about political issues at a certain time.

Public Opinion Poll

A survey that asks a sample of people questions to estimate the opinions of a larger population.

Straw Poll

An unofficial vote or survey that measures people's opinions and has no binding results.

Tracking Poll

A poll conducted repeatedly to measure how public opinion changes over time.

Exit Poll

A survey of voters after they vote to understand how and why they voted

Deliberative Poll

A poll where participants learn about and discuss an issue before giving their opinions.

Bandwagon Effect

When voters support a candidate because they believe that candidate is winning.

Underdog Effect

When voters support a candidate because they believe that candidate is losing.

Push Polling

A political campaign technique that uses biased questions to influence voters while pretending to conduct a poll.

Mass Public

The general population, including people who pay little attention to politics.

Attentive Public

People who regularly follow political news and pay attention to government issues.

Opinion Makers

People who influence the political opinions of others, such as journalists, experts, and political leaders.

Capricious

acting suddenly or impulsively without clear or reasonable explanation

minimum sample size for a national poll

1200 people according to your class notes

federal individual campaign contribution limit(2026)

an individual can donate $3500 per election to a federal candidate.primary and general election count separately

grassroots

when ordinary citizens organize to influence government decisions or support a political cause

astroturfing

when an organization creates a fake grassroots movement to make it seem like ordinary citizens support a cause

revolving door

when a government officials leaves their job t become a lobbyist

K Street

A metonymy used to represent the lobbying industry in Washington, D.C.

Advantages of Interest Groups

Promote people's interests, educate the public, and give citizens a voice in government.

Disadvantages of Interest Groups

Can pressure politicians, promote unreasonable policies, and give wealthy groups more political influence.

Business Cycle

The natural fluctuation of the economy between periods of expansion and recession.

Economic Expansion

A period when the economy grows, businesses produce more, and employment generally increases.

Economic Recession

A period when economic activity declines, businesses struggle, and unemployment often increases.

Laissez-Faire State

An approach where the government has minimal involvement in the economy and allows businesses and markets to operate freely.

Interventionist State

An approach where the government actively influences the economy through laws, regulations, taxes, and spending.

Insourcing

When a company performs work within its own country or organization instead of hiring outside workers.

Outsourcing

When a company hires another company or workers, often in another country, to perform work at a lower cost.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

The total value of all final goods and services produced within a country during a certain period. Your notes record U.S. GDP at $30 trillion in 2025.

GDP Per Capita

A country's GDP divided by its population, showing the average economic output per person.

Dow Jones Industrial Average (Dow Jones)

A stock market index that tracks 30 major U.S. companies to measure stock market performance.

DJIA (October 2026)

Your notes record the Dow Jones at approximately 52,500 points in October 2026.

Individual Income Tax

A tax the government collects on the income earned by individuals. Your notes identify it as the largest source of federal revenue.

Federal Budget (2025)

The government's plan for collecting and spending money. Your notes list $5.3 trillion in revenue and $7.1 trillion in expenditures.

Federal Revenue (2025)

Money the federal government collects, mainly through taxes. Your notes list $5.3 trillion.

Federal Expenditures (2025)

Money the federal government spends on programs, services, and other expenses. Your notes list $7.1 trillion.

Federal Deficit (2025)

When the government spends more money than it collects. Your notes list $1.8 trillion.

Monetary Policy

Actions taken by the Federal Reserve to influence the money supply, interest rates, and the economy.

Federal Reserve System (The Fed)

The central banking system of the United States, established in 1913 to manage monetary policy and support financial stability. Its Board of Governors has 7 members serving 14-year terms.

Reserve Requirements

Rules determining how much money banks must keep in reserve instead of lending out.

Discount Rate

The interest rate the Federal Reserve charges banks for certain loans.

Open Market Operations

When the Federal Reserve buys or sells government securities to influence the money supply and interest rates.

Consumer Price Index (CPI)

A measure of the average change in prices consumers pay for everyday goods and services. Your notes record inflation at 3.4% in 2024.

Inflation

When the overall prices of goods and services increase, reducing the purchasing power of money.

Economic Conditions

The overall state of the economy, including inflation, economic growth, and recession.

Economic Stability

When the economy experiences steady growth, stable prices, and relatively low unemployment.

Recession

A significant decline in economic activity that lasts for an extended period.

Fiscal Policy

Government decisions about taxation and spending used to influence the economy.

Business Cycle

The repeated periods of economic expansion and contraction that occur in a capitalist economy.