Psych: Chapter 2- Developmental Theories

What is a theory, in the scientific sense?

A well-developed set of ideas that explains behavior and events and is used to predict future observations

What is a hypothesis?

A testable prediction, logically derived from a theory, often worded as an if-then statement

What is the passive versus active debate among developmental theorists?

Whether early experiences drive later development, or current behavior mainly reflects present experience

What is the continuity versus discontinuity debate?

Whether development is best seen as happening in stages, or as a gradual, cumulative process

What did John Locke propose about the newborn mind?

That it is a tabula rasa ("blank slate") written on through experience and learning

What did Jean-Jacques Rousseau propose about development?

That it occurs according to innate processes, progressing through three stages: infancy, childhood, and adolescence

Who founded the field of behaviorism?

John B. Watson

Who developed the stage theory of cognitive development?

Jean Piaget

Who conducted the first large-scale study revealing consistent patterns of child development focused on biological maturation?

Arnold Gesell

What did Freud propose about when personality forms?

That personality forms during the first few years of life

What is the id, in Freud's theory?

The part of personality including our instincts and drives; wants immediate gratification, runs on the pleasure principle

What is the ego, in Freud's theory?

The rational part of personality, developing in the first three years, running on the reality principle to help the id satisfy desires realistically

What is the superego, in Freud's theory?

The rule-based part of personality that emerges around age five and acts as our conscience

What happens when the ego fails to balance the id and superego?

Neurosis, or a tendency to experience negative emotions

What is an erogenous zone, in Freud's theory?

The body area a child's pleasure-seeking urges are focused on during a given psychosexual stage

What happens if a child does not get proper nurturing during a psychosexual stage?

They become fixated, or stuck, in that stage, even as an adult

What is the major conflict of the oral stage, and what might fixation there look like in adulthood?

Weaning off the breast or bottle; fixation may show up as smoking or overeating

What is the major conflict of the anal stage, and what might fixation there look like in adulthood?

Toilet training; fixation may show up as extreme neatness or extreme messiness

What is the major conflict of the phallic stage, and what might fixation there look like in adulthood?

The Oedipus/Electra complex; fixation may show up as vanity or overambition

What happens in the latency stage of psychosexual development?

Attention focuses on family and friendships while biological drives are temporarily quieted

What happens in the genital stage of psychosexual development?

The person becomes preoccupied with sex and reproduction as hormone levels rise

What is the Oedipus complex?

A boy's unconscious sexual desire for his opposite-sex parent and hatred for his same-sex parent

What is the Electra complex?

A girl's unconscious attraction to her father, followed by giving up that affection and learning to be more like her mother

When does the superego form, according to Freud?

During the dissolution of the Oedipus and Electra complexes

What is denial, as a defense mechanism?

Not accepting the truth, or lying to oneself

What is displacement, as a defense mechanism?

Taking out frustrations on a safer target

What is projection, as a defense mechanism?

Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts to others

What is rationalization, as a defense mechanism?

Distorting the facts to make an event or impulse feel less threatening

What is reaction formation, as a defense mechanism?

Outwardly opposing something you inwardly desire but find unacceptable

What is regression, as a defense mechanism?

Reverting to an earlier, safer-feeling time, sometimes childhood behaviors

What is repression, as a defense mechanism?

Pushing painful thoughts out of conscious awareness

What is sublimation, as a defense mechanism?

Transforming unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors

What are the main criticisms of Freud's psychodynamic perspective?

It's very difficult to test scientifically, it's considered sexist, and it relies heavily on unverifiable unconscious motives

How did Erikson's view of personality development contrast with Freud's?

Erikson believed personality develops throughout the entire lifespan, while Freud believed it was fixed in early life

What did Erikson emphasize at each stage, in contrast to Freud's erogenous zones?

Social relationships important at each stage

What does successful completion of each of Erikson's stages depend on?

The development of a healthy personality and a sense of competence

What is the task in Erikson's Trust vs. Mistrust stage?

Infants must learn that adults can be trusted

What is the task in Erikson's Autonomy vs. Shame stage?

Toddlers explore their world and learn they can control their actions and environment

What is the task in Erikson's Initiative vs. Guilt stage?

Preschoolers initiate activities and assert control through social interaction and play

What is the task in Erikson's Industry vs. Inferiority stage?

Elementary school children develop pride in accomplishments, or feel inferior and inadequate

What is the task in Erikson's Identity vs. Role Confusion stage?

Adolescents develop a sense of self by exploring roles, setting goals, and discovering their adult identity

What is the task in Erikson's Intimacy vs. Isolation stage?

Young adults develop and maintain successful relationships with others

What is the task in Erikson's Generativity vs. Stagnation stage?

Middle-aged adults find their life's work and contribute to the development of others

What is the task in Erikson's Integrity vs. Despair stage?

Older adults reflect on their lives with pride and satisfaction, or with regret and failure

What is a key weakness of Erikson's theory regarding testability?

It is difficult to test rigorously because of its vagueness

What does behaviorism say are the keys to understanding development?

Observable behavior and external stimuli in the environment, rather than internal mental factors

What did Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments demonstrate?

That a neutral stimulus, paired repeatedly with a stimulus that already triggers a reflex, can come to trigger that same response on its own

What is an unconditioned stimulus and response, before conditioning?

A stimulus (like food) that naturally produces a response (like salivation) without any learning

What happens to a neutral stimulus during conditioning?

It is presented just before the unconditioned stimulus, until it becomes a conditioned stimulus that triggers the response on its own

What was Watson's "Little Albert" experiment meant to demonstrate?

The power of classical conditioning to create a fear response (of a white rat) that did not exist before

What did B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning focus on, in contrast to classical conditioning?

How new behaviors are learned, rather than how existing behaviors are reflexively triggered

What is the law of effect?

Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated

What is a reinforcer?

Anything following a behavior that makes it more likely to occur again

What is the difference between a primary and a secondary reinforcer?

A primary reinforcer (like food) is intrinsically rewarding, while a secondary reinforcer (like money) can be exchanged for what is really wanted

What is a Skinner box used for?

Testing how animals learn through operant conditioning, by pressing a lever or pecking a disk for a food reward

What is reciprocal determinism, in Bandura's theory?

The dynamic, reciprocal interaction between a person, their behavior, and their environment

What is observational learning?

Learning new responses by watching the behavior of a social model, without needing direct reinforcement

What is a social model, in observational learning?

A person whose behavior is observed and learned from, typically someone of higher status or authority

What are the four parts of the observational learning process?

Attention, retention, initiation, and motivation

What is vicarious reinforcement?

When a person's behavior is influenced by observing a social model receive reinforcement or punishment

What do cognitive theories focus on?

How mental processes or cognitions change over time

What is assimilation, in Piaget's theory?

Fitting new information into an existing schema, matching it with something already known

What is accommodation, in Piaget's theory?

Expanding an existing schema to fit new information, such as by learning new concepts

What happens during Piaget's sensorimotor stage?

Children learn through their senses and motor behavior, and develop object permanence and stranger anxiety

What is object permanence?

The understanding that something still exists even when it is out of sight

What happens during Piaget's preoperational stage?

Children use symbols and engage in pretend play, but cannot yet understand adult logic, lack conservation, and show egocentrism

What is conservation, in Piaget's theory?

The understanding that changing an object's appearance does not change its amount, as long as nothing is added or removed

What is egocentrism, in Piaget's theory?

The inability to take the perspective of another person

What is theory-of-mind?

Understanding that other people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs different from one's own

What happens during Piaget's concrete operational stage?

Children think logically about real events, master conservation, and understand reversibility

What is reversibility, in Piaget's theory?

The understanding that objects can be changed and then returned to their original form or condition

What happens during Piaget's formal operational stage?

Children can reason about abstract ideas and hypothetical situations, and a renewed egocentrism appears in adolescence

What is a major criticism of Piaget's stage theory?

Newer research suggests development is more continuous than his discrete stages, and children may reach milestones earlier than he described

What is the postformal stage some psychologists propose?

A possible fifth stage where decisions are based on circumstances, integrating logic with emotion, drawing on past experience to solve new problems

How does the information processing approach differ from Piaget's approach?

It emphasizes continuous development and holds that we actively process information through attention, working memory, and long-term memory, rather than progressing through discrete stages

How do Neo-Piagetian theories view cognition differently from Piaget?

As made up of different individual skills that develop at different rates, rather than a single general system, with a greater role for experience and culture

What does cognitive neuroscience study?

The biological and neural processes underlying cognition, seeking to identify brain locations and functions tied to mental processes

What did Carl Rogers emphasize in shaping personality?

The self-actualizing tendency

What is the phenomenal field, in Rogers' theory?

A person's continuously changing subjective reality, which they constantly react to

What is the difference between the ideal self and the real self?

The ideal self is the person you would like to be; the real self is the person you actually are

What is congruity, in Rogers' theory?

How closely a person's real self matches their ideal self

What happens when there is incongruence between real and ideal self?

It leads to maladjustment

How did Rogers believe parents help children reach their ideal self?

By giving unconditional positive regard, or unconditional love free of preconceived judgments of worth

How did Rogers describe "the good life," in contrast to a stage theory?

In terms of ongoing principles (like openness to experience and trusting one's own judgment) rather than developmental stages

What did Maslow propose motivates human behavior?

A hierarchy of needs, where basic needs must be met before a person is motivated toward higher-level needs

What is the goal at the top of Maslow's hierarchy of needs?

Self-actualization

What needs sit at the base of Maslow's hierarchy?

Physiological needs, such as breathing, food, water, and sleep

What did Vygotsky believe played a critical role in children's learning?

Social interaction

What is guided participation, in Vygotsky's theory?

A learner actively acquiring new culturally valuable skills through collaborative activity with a more experienced person

What is scaffolding, in Vygotsky's theory?

A teacher modeling how to solve a problem, then stepping back and offering support only as needed

What is the Zone of Proximal Development?

The gap between what a learner can do without help and what they cannot yet do at all

What do psychological tools, especially language, do in Vygotsky's theory?

Mediate the development of higher mental functions

What does Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory say shapes a child's development?

The interaction between the qualities of a child and multiple nested environments around them

Why did Bronfenbrenner rename his theory the bioecological model?

To recognize the importance of biological processes in development

What does the microsystem include, in Bronfenbrenner's model?

Family, peers, church, health services, and school

What does the macrosystem include, in Bronfenbrenner's model?

The attitudes and ideologies of the broader culture

What is the chronosystem, in Bronfenbrenner's model?

The relevant historical context and timeframe in which all development occurs

What does the evolutionary perspective seek to identify?

Behavior that results from our genetic inheritance from our ancestors

What does evolutionary psychology claim genetic inheritance determines, beyond physical traits?

Certain personality traits and social behaviors

What does behavioral genetics study?

How heredity influences individual differences in behavior, and how environment affects whether inherited traits actually show up