Bio Benchmark (Knox got a 60 on English Quiz)

Independent Variable

The variable that is purposefully changed or manipulated by the experimenter (e.g., temperature)

Dependent Variable

The variable that changes in response and is measured; the responding variable (e.g., enzyme activity)

Control Group

The baseline or "normal" group used for comparison in an experiment

Constant

Conditions or variables that stay the same throughout the experiment to ensure a fair test (e.g., enzyme type)

Hypothesis

An educated guess or testable prediction about the outcome of an experiment

Reliability of Data

Running multiple trials and using large sample sizes ensures that results are consistent and proves conclusions are valid

DRY MIX

Dependent / Responding on Y-axis; Manipulated / Independent on X-axis

Polarity of Water

Water has partial positive and negative charges, allowing it to dissolve polar molecules and ionic compounds, making it an excellent solvent.

Cohesion

The attraction between molecules of the same substance (e.g., water molecules sticking to each other).

Adhesion

The attraction between molecules of different substances (e.g., water sticking to plant vascular walls).

Surface Tension

The measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid, caused by cohesion between water molecules.

High Specific Heat

Water's ability to absorb or release large amounts of heat with only small temperature changes, stabilizing biological environments.

Capillary Action

The movement of water upward through narrow spaces due to the combined forces of cohesion and adhesion (e.g., water moving up plant roots/stems).

Floating Ice

Ice is less dense than liquid water, so it floats to form an insulating layer at the top of lakes, allowing aquatic ecosystems to survive underneath.

Carbohydrate

Monomer: Monosaccharides | Function: Quick energy and structural support | Example: Glucose, starch, cellulose.

Lipid

Monomer: Fatty acids & glycerol | Function: Long-term energy storage, insulation, cell membrane structure | Example: Fats, oils, phospholipids.

Protein

Monomer: Amino acids | Function: Enzymes, muscle building, cellular transport, immune response | Example: Enzymes, hemoglobin, antibodies.

Nucleic Acid

Monomer: Nucleotides | Function: Stores and transmits genetic information | Example: DNA, RNA.

Enzyme

Biological catalysts (proteins) that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy

Activation Energy

The minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction

Denatured Enzyme

A structural change in an enzyme caused by extreme heat or pH that alters the active site, making it lose its function

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

Temperature (heat) and pH levels

Substrate

The specific reactant that binds to an enzyme's active site

Active Site

The region on an enzyme where the substrate binds to undergo a chemical reaction

Enzyme-Substrate Complex

The temporary structure formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate before producing products

Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (e.g., bacteria); Eukaryotes have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (e.g., plant and animal cells).

Plant vs. Animal Cells

Plant cells have cell walls, chloroplasts, and large central vacuoles; animal cells have centrioles and smaller vacuoles.

Cell Specialization

Allows cells in multicellular organisms to perform specific functions efficiently (e.g., red blood cells carrying oxygen, nerve cells transmitting signals).

Nucleus

Controls cell activities and stores DNA; found in plant and animal eukaryotes

Ribosome

Synthesizes proteins; found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Rough ER processes/transports proteins; Smooth ER synthesizes lipids

Golgi Apparatus

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for transport

Mitochondria

Produces cellular energy (ATP) through cellular respiration

Chloroplast

Converts light energy into chemical energy (glucose) via photosynthesis; found in plant cells

Lysosome

Contains digestive enzymes to break down waste and worn-out cell parts

Vacuole

Stores water, nutrients, and waste (large central vacuole in plants)

Cell Membrane

Regulates what enters and leaves the cell; found in all cells (prokaryotes and eukaryotes)

Cell Wall

Provides rigid structure and protection; found in plants, fungi, and prokaryotes

Passive Transport

Movement of molecules across the cell membrane without using cellular energy (ATP) from high to low concentration.

Active Transport

Movement of molecules across the cell membrane requiring ATP energy, usually moving against the concentration gradient (low to high).

Hypotonic Solution

A solution with a lower solute concentration than the cell, causing water to enter an animal cell and potentially burst (lyse).

Selective Permeability

Property of the lipid bilayer membrane that allows certain molecules to pass through while blocking others.

Diffusion

Passive transport of solute particles from high concentration to low concentration.

Osmosis

Passive transport of water molecules across a semipermeable membrane from high water concentration to low water concentration.

Facilitated Diffusion

Passive transport of molecules across the membrane using specific protein channels.

Protein Pump

Active transport mechanism using carrier proteins and energy to pump ions against their gradient (low to high).

Endocytosis

Active transport process where the cell membrane engulfs bulk materials into the cell.

Exocytosis

Active transport process where vesicles fuse with the cell membrane to expel materials out of the cell.

Photosynthesis Equation

6CO2 + 6H2O + Light Energy -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 (Reactants: Carbon Dioxide, Water, Light; Products: Glucose, Oxygen).

Light-Dependent vs. Light-Independent Reactions

Light-dependent reactions convert sunlight into ATP/NADPH and release oxygen; Light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle) use ATP/NADPH to make glucose.

Cellular Respiration Equation

C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP (Reactants: Glucose, Oxygen; Products: Carbon Dioxide, Water, ATP).

Relationship Between Photosynthesis & Cellular Respiration

The products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen) are the reactants for cellular respiration, forming a continuous cycle.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

The primary energy currency of the cell; produced during cellular respiration and broken down into ADP + Phosphate to release usable energy.