Primary Sources Early Modern Europe (First Test)

Utopia

Details: Published by Thomas More in 1516 in the Netherlands, a hypothetical account of a man named Raphael’s travels to Utopia, a society that shares property, focuses on rational thought, has no poverty, and has little immoral behavior. They agree it is superior to their society but could not be achieved in Europe

Historical Context: Northern / English Renaissance, Humanism- interest in human potential, the individual, and logic and reason, published shortly after In Praise of Folly (written by Erasmus, More’s close friend) and also critiques European politics and society

Theme #1: Social and economic equality- abolition of private property and money, people are free to take whatever they need, free education for all men and women

Theme #2: Importance of religion- people are free to follow any form of Monotheism, anyone who denies the existence of God or the immortality of the soul is considered a danger to society and their beliefs are judged harshly

“95 Theses”

Details: Published by Martin Luther in 1517 in Wittenburg, Germany, a list of grievances with the sale of indulgences in the Catholic Church, Protestants use printing press to disperse it

Historical Context: Laymen demand reform in the Catholic Church, clerical abuses: Sale of indulgences- payment to reduce the time a soul must suffer punishment for sins in Purgatory, clergy takes advantage to gain wealth, Simony- the sale of church offices, many cardinals stay in Rome accumulating wealth from designated territories without ever going there, Penance- confession of sins becomes interrogation, Immunity from taxes

Theme #1: Payment of indulgences does not equate to true repentance, only God has the power to forgive sins, the clergy cannot be certain whether or not a person is repentant and has been forgiven by God

Theme #2: The sale of indulgences is the result of the greed of the clergy, they discourage repentance and mercy, the true treasure of the Church is the gospel, not money

To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation

Details: Published by Martin Luther in 1520 in Wittenburg, Germany, written in the vernacular

Historical Context: After refusing to renounce his “95 Theses,” Martin Luther realizes the clergy will not reform itself, and he is likely to be excommunicated, he appeals to the nobility in hopes they will take action against clerical abuses

Theme #1: The clergy is not its own class, according to the Bible anyone who has been baptized is consecrated as a priest

Theme #2: When the pope acts contrary to Scripture, it is the laypeoples’ duty to correct him, ordinary people should be able to call a council if they find a problem with the Church

The Freedom of a Christian

Details: Published by Martin Luther in 1520 in Wittenburg, Germany

Historical Context: Protestant disagreement with Catholic teachings about salvation, faith, and good works

Theme #1: Christians are justified through faith and grace, true faith leads Christians to serve others out of love

Theme #2: The spiritual nature/soul is the inner man, which relies on the Gospel to be righteous and freed by the salvation Jesus offers, and whose purpose in life is to serve God. The outer man must be disciplined through good works so it will conform to the inner man

“Arise O Lord”

Details: Published by Pope Leo X in 1520 in Rome, condemns Martin Luther’s theological errors and threatens him with excommunication as a heretic

Historical Context: Response to Martin Luther’s “95 Theses”, which criticizes the sale of indulgences, Leo X stops holding back because Charles V has been elected Holy Roman Emperor, and he is not trying to win the support of electors anymore

Theme #1: Martin Luther is twisting Scripture to change it from its intended meaning, his inability to correctly interpret scripjture is caused by the Devil

Theme #2: “Arise and lift yourself up” (speaking to the entire Church) The Catholic Church must unite and defend itself against heresy, Martin Luther’s teachings will not be tolerated since they will cause division within the church

Apology of the Church of England

Details: Published by John Jewel in 1562 in England, Defends Protestantism, specifically the Church of England, against accusations of heresy, originally Latin, English in 1564

Historical Context: English Reformation, published while the Council of Trent (which essentially puts the Catholic Church at war against Protestantism, encourages book burning) was in session, Protestants are being accused of heresy

Theme #1: Protestants are not heretics, they are restoring purity to Christianity- Jesus was also accused of heresy and blasphemy, moral responsibility to protest

Theme #2: The Pope and other Catholic accusers do not support their arguments with evidence from Scripture

Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent

Details: Published by by Pope Pius IV in 1563 in Rome, clarifies Catholic theology and defends it against Protestant criticism, catalyst for the Counter-Reformation by solidifying Catholic doctrine

Historical Context: Published in response to demands for reform in the Catholic church, as well as accusations of corruption against the Catholic church by reformers

Theme #1: Catholic theology regarding Purgatory, the authority of the pope, intercessory prayer, veneration of saints, the sacraments, the Eucharist, and indulgences is sound and those who disagree are anathema (condemned/excommunicated)

Theme #2: Heretical writings are evil and damaging to society, any books or writings that oppose Catholic theology or are deemed heretical are condemned, anyone who possesses or sells condemned books will be prosecuted or excommunicated, only educated people may read the entire Bible

New Atlantis

Details: Written by Francis Bacon, published in 1626 in England, describes a foreign nation, Bensalem, which focuses on scientific innovation for the glory of God

Historical Context: Scientific Revolution, growing emphasis on empiricism

Theme #1: Use of the scientific method- scientific study relies on empiricism (observation and repeated experimentation), scientists specialize in separate fields and collaborate

Theme #2: Utility- the discoveries and innovations of Bensalem are used for the common good of the nation to improve the lives of citizens and their understanding of God’s creation

“The Attempt to Kill Admiral Colingy”

Details: Written by Francois Hotman in 1573 in Geneva, Switzerland, Protestant account of the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, one of the first and most widely circulated Protestant accounts, translated into French, English, and German to reach a broader audience

Historical Context: French Wars of Religion, extreme tension and constant violence between Catholics and Protestants, many Protestant leaders arrived in Paris for the wedding of Margaret de Valois and Henry of Navarre

Theme #1: Contrast between the peaceful nature of Admiral Colingy and the treachery of Catherine de’ Medici and other Catholic nobles

Theme #2: The Catholics took advantage of the high concentration of Protestant leaders in Paris and trapped them so they could be easily assinated

“Report to the Venetian Senate on the Wounding of the Admiral”

Details: Written by Giovanni Michiel in 1572 in Venice, Catholic Account, one of the strongest accusations against Catherine de’ Medici

Historical Context: French Wars of Religion, extreme tension and constant violence between Catholics and Protestants, many Protestant leaders arrived in Paris for the wedding of Margaret de Valois and Henry of Navarre, many people are suspicious of/dislike Catherine de’ Medici

Theme #1: The Huguenots arrived bearing arms and planned to attack the king and the duke of Guise

Theme #2: The massacre shows how quickly people can be driven to commit heinous acts out of religious conviction and how quickly the violence spreads

“The Killing Widens”

Details: Written by Claude Haton in 1572 in France, describes the Catholics’ discovery of the Huguenots’ plot to massacre them

Historical Context: French Wars of Religion, extreme tension and constant violence between Catholics and Protestants, many Protestant leaders arrived in Paris for the wedding of Margaret de Valois and Henry of Navarre

Theme #1: The Huguenots planned to massacre the Catholics, the Saint Bartholemews’ massacre was merely the Catholics defending themselves against the Protestants

Theme #2: The Huguenots’ plan failed because they were arrogant and openly threatened the Catholics

Report by the Merchants’ Provost

Details: Written by Claude Marcel in 1572, details the orders given to the Merchants’ Provost by the king leading up to The Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

Historical Context: French Wars of Religion, extreme tension and constant violence between Catholics and Protestants, many Protestant leaders arrived in Paris for the wedding of Margaret de Valois and Henry of Navarre

Theme #1: The Huguenots were conspiring to rise up against the king and had threatened him, so the massacre was warranted and a defensive measure

Theme #2: The King instructed the merchants’ provost to lock the gates of the city and bring all of the boats onto the river bank to prevent anyone from leaving the city, so the massacre could be executed successfully

The Religious Peace of Augsburg

Details: Published in 1555 by the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire, in the German city of Augsburg, concluding statement of the imperial diet, confirms and expands the Treaty of Passau, temporary solution that allows Catholics and Protestants to coexist peacefully

Historical Context: Alliance of Lutheran Princes called the Schmalkaldic League counters anti-Protestant agenda of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Treaty of Passau grants Lutherans religious freedom in 1552

Theme #1: “Whose reign, his religion”- the religion of each region will correspond to the religion of its ruler, and citizens of the other religion must either convert or leave the region

Theme #2: The two opposing religious groups will not harm or oppress each other, and religious disputes will be solved peacefully and without violence

The Protestant Union

Details: Published by Protestant German princes in 1608 in Germany, declares the creation of the Protestant Union, an alliance of Protestant German Princes

Historical Context: Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II gave the Catholic Church control over Protestant Churches in Donauwörth and overstepped his authority by refusing to consult with local imperial institutions 1607, Holy Roman Empire had suffered a political breakdown when delegates at the imperial diet cannot agree on a concluding statement

Theme #1: If anyone took violent action against the peace and unity of the Holy Roman Empire, the principalities (territories ruled by princes) are obligated to support each other to protect it/themselves, the Protestant princes are forming an alliance from mutual defense

Theme #2: The Protestant Union is not against the Holy Roman Emperor, it is purely defensive and its goal is to keep the peace and unity of the nation

The Catholic League

Details: Published by Catholic Princes in 1609 in Germany, declares the creation of the Catholic League, an alliance of Catholic Princes, led by Maximilian of Bavaria, pledges support for the empire yet excludes the emperor from the Catholic Union

Historical Context: A response to the creation of the Protestant Union, Maximilian of Bavaria becomes duke of Bavaria in 1597 and has been centralizing the region, the combination of that and his leadership in the Catholic Union threatens Habsburg control

Theme #1: If the war in the Holy Roman Empire continues Catholicism will be eliminated in the empire

Theme #2: The intention of the Catholic Union is to defend and preserve Catholicism and promote peace in the empire, if a member of the Union is attacked, the others will apeal amicably to the offender to ask him to stop, and if he doesn’t they will undertake necessary defense

The Defenestration of Prague

Details: Published by Wilhelm, Count von Slavata AFTER 1618 in Prague, a third person account of how he, Jaroslav Count von Martinitz, and their secretary Philipp Fabricius were meant to be killed but were saved by divine intervention

Historical Context: The defenestration marked the beginning of the Thirty Years War, Catholic officials closed Protestant churches in Broumov and Bohemia in 1617 which violated the Letter of Majesty, assembly of Protestant clergymen and nobles find them guilty of violating it and defenestrate them

Theme #1: Protestants are barbaric and will hear nothing of order truth or justice due to their perverse wickedness, Catholics are peaceful pious repentant of sins and treated unjustly

Theme #2: Their survival is evidence that Catholics are in the right and God is on their side

The Edict of Restitution

Details: Published by Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II in 1629 in Vienna, Austria, heavily influenced by Jesuit advisers who want to reconvert Protestants, contemporaries view its seizure of Protestant lands and intolerance of Calvinism as very aggressive, Lutherans fear the Holy Roman Emperor and Catholics will have too much power, Catholics believe it will prolong the war by increasing Protestant resistance

Historical Context: Catholic imperial forces have been prevailing over Protestants for 10 years, Protestant princes have been using the Peace of Augsburg to secularize lands held by Catholic church officials who converted to Protestantism

Theme #1: All properties that were possessed by Catholics during the Treaty of Passau (1552) will be returned

Theme #2: Religious peace only applies to Catholics and Lutherans, not Calvinists or any other religious groups

A Childhood Memory of the Edict of Restitution

Details: Published by Johann Daniel Friese sometime after 1648 in Germany, Friese is accompanying his father on a diplomatic journey from Magdeburg to General Wallenstein’s headquarters, his father reads a copy of it for the first time and discusses it with his colleague/the mayor

Historical Context: When the account takes place the Edict of Restitution has just been published, Friese is later present at the negotiations that led to the end of the Thirty Years War

Theme #1: The edict will lead to further hostilities between Catholics and Protestants

Theme #2: Neither of them will live to see the end of the war, but Johann Friese might