cold war

What was the Grand Alliance?

The wartime alliance of the USA, USSR and Britain against Nazi Germany; it was based on a shared enemy, not shared ideology.

How did the ideologies of the USA and USSR differ?

USA: capitalist, multi-party democracy and private enterprise. USSR: communist one-party state, state-controlled economy and collective ownership.

Why did the USA and USSR become rivals after 1945?

They had opposing ideologies, competing security aims, mutual suspicion and ambitions to shape post-war Europe.

What did Stalin want from post-war Europe?

A buffer zone of friendly communist states in Eastern Europe to protect the USSR from future invasion.

Why was Eastern Europe so important to Stalin?

Russia had been invaded through Eastern Europe; control of the region would provide strategic depth and security.

What did the USA want for post-war Europe?

Political self-determination, democratic governments, open markets and economic recovery; it feared the spread of communism.

What was the significance of the Yalta Conference (February 1945)?

The Big Three agreed on Germany's occupation zones, free elections in liberated Europe and plans for the UN, but disagreements remained over Poland.

Why did the Potsdam Conference (July-August 1945) increase tension?

Truman was tougher on Stalin, the Allies disagreed over Germany and reparations, and Stalin's actions in Eastern Europe worried the West.

How did the atomic bomb affect relations at Potsdam?

The USA had successfully tested an atomic bomb and informed Stalin; the US nuclear monopoly increased Soviet insecurity and mistrust.

What was the 'salami tactics' policy?

A phrase describing the gradual removal of opposition and seizure of power by communists in Eastern European states.

How did Stalin establish control over Eastern Europe?

Communists used coalition governments, intimidation, rigged elections, control of police and removal of political opponents.

Why was the communist takeover of Poland controversial?

Stalin failed to allow genuinely free elections as promised at Yalta; a pro-Soviet government was established.

What happened in Czechoslovakia in February 1948?

Communists seized full control in a coup, alarming the West because Czechoslovakia had been a democracy.

What was the significance of the 'Iron Curtain' speech (1946)?

Churchill described Europe as divided between Soviet-controlled East and the democratic West, publicising the growing split.

What was the Truman Doctrine (March 1947)?

A US policy of containing communism by supporting countries threatened by communist expansion, initially Greece and Turkey.

What was containment?

The US strategy of preventing communism from spreading beyond the areas where it already existed.

What was the Marshall Plan (1947)?

US economic aid to help rebuild European economies and reduce the appeal of communism; the USSR rejected it and pressured Eastern Europe to do so.

Why did Stalin oppose the Marshall Plan?

He saw US economic influence as a threat and feared aid would weaken Soviet control over Eastern Europe.

What was Cominform (1947)?

A Soviet organisation coordinating communist parties and enforcing ideological discipline across the communist bloc.

What was Comecon (1949)?

The Soviet-led Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, coordinating the economies of communist states as an alternative to Western economic cooperation.

Why was Germany divided after the Second World War?

The Allies divided Germany into four occupation zones; Berlin, inside the Soviet zone, was also divided into four sectors.

Why did disagreement over Germany grow?

The Western powers wanted economic recovery and a stable state; Stalin wanted security, reparations and a weak Germany.

What was the significance of Bizonia (1947)?

Britain and the USA merged their German zones economically, strengthening Western cooperation and angering Stalin.

Why was the introduction of the Deutschmark in 1948 important?

The Western Allies introduced a new currency in their zones and West Berlin; Stalin saw it as a step towards a separate West German state.

What was the Berlin Blockade (June 1948-May 1949)?

Stalin blocked road, rail and canal access to West Berlin to force the Western Allies to abandon the city or their plans for West Germany.

How did the Western Allies respond to the Berlin Blockade?

They organised the Berlin Airlift, flying food, fuel and supplies into West Berlin for almost a year.

Why was the Berlin Airlift a success for the West?

It kept West Berlin supplied, demonstrated Western determination and forced Stalin to end the blockade in May 1949.

Why did Stalin end the Berlin Blockade?

The airlift had defeated the attempt to force the West out, and continuing the blockade risked conflict without achieving its aims.

What were the consequences of the Berlin Blockade?

It deepened the division of Europe; the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and German Democratic Republic (GDR) were created in 1949.

When and why was NATO formed?

April 1949; the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation was a collective defence alliance against possible Soviet aggression.

What was the Warsaw Pact (1955)?

A Soviet-led military alliance formed in response to West Germany joining NATO, binding communist states to the USSR.

How did the creation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact affect Europe?

They formalised the division into rival military blocs and increased the risk that a local conflict could become a wider war.

Why did opposition to Soviet control grow in Hungary?

People resented repression, secret police, lack of freedom, economic problems and Soviet domination.

What happened in Hungary in October 1956?

A popular uprising challenged communist rule; Imre Nagy became prime minister and promised reforms and political change.

What reforms did Imre Nagy propose?

A more democratic government, freedom for political parties and Hungary's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact.

How did the USSR respond to the Hungarian Uprising?

Soviet forces invaded in November 1956, crushed resistance and installed a pro-Soviet government under János Kádár.

Why did the USA not intervene in Hungary?

Hungary was within the Soviet sphere; intervention risked war, potentially nuclear war, and containment did not mean liberating every communist state.

What did the Hungarian Uprising reveal about Soviet control?

The USSR would use military force to maintain its sphere of influence, while the West was unwilling to risk war to challenge it.

Why was the West's response to Hungary significant?

It exposed the limits of Western promises of liberation and showed that propaganda support did not translate into military intervention.

Why did many East Germans flee to the West before 1961?

West Berlin offered greater freedom and prosperity; skilled workers and young people left, damaging East Germany's economy and credibility.

What was the Berlin Ultimatum (1958)?

Khrushchev demanded that the Western powers leave West Berlin and that it become a demilitarised free city; the West refused.

What happened at the Vienna Summit (June 1961)?

Khrushchev renewed pressure over Berlin, while Kennedy refused to abandon Western rights in the city; tensions remained high.

When and why was the Berlin Wall built?

From 13 August 1961, East Germany, backed by the USSR, sealed the border to stop the mass movement of people to West Berlin.

What were the consequences of the Berlin Wall?

It stopped most emigration, stabilised East Germany and became a powerful symbol of communist repression and Europe's division.

Why did Kennedy not try to destroy the Berlin Wall?

He prioritised avoiding war and preserving access to West Berlin; the Wall was preferable to a direct superpower confrontation.

Why did Castro come to power in Cuba in 1959?

He overthrew Batista's unpopular dictatorship and established a revolutionary government that moved towards communism.

Why did relations between Cuba and the USA deteriorate?

Castro nationalised US-owned businesses and developed ties with the USSR; the USA imposed economic pressure and tried to remove him.

What was the Bay of Pigs invasion (April 1961)?

A failed invasion by Cuban exiles, supported by the CIA, intended to overthrow Castro; it strengthened his position and pushed Cuba closer to the USSR.

Why did Khrushchev place missiles in Cuba in 1962?

To protect Cuba, strengthen the USSR's strategic position, respond to US missiles near the USSR and challenge US nuclear superiority.

What did US reconnaissance discover in October 1962?

Photographs showed Soviet missile sites being built in Cuba, capable of bringing much of the USA within nuclear range.

What options did Kennedy consider during the Cuban Missile Crisis?

Diplomatic pressure, an invasion, air strikes or a naval blockade; he chose a naval quarantine to limit escalation.

What was the US naval quarantine of Cuba?

A naval line announced on 22 October 1962 to stop offensive Soviet military supplies reaching Cuba; it was called a quarantine rather than a blockade.

How was the Cuban Missile Crisis resolved?

Khrushchev agreed to remove Soviet missiles from Cuba; Kennedy publicly promised not to invade Cuba and secretly agreed to remove US Jupiter missiles from Turkey.

Why was the Cuban Missile Crisis a turning point?

It brought the superpowers close to nuclear war and encouraged improved communication and arms-control measures.

Who was more responsible for the Cuban Missile Crisis?

A balanced judgement: Khrushchev escalated by secretly placing missiles in Cuba, but US hostility, the Bay of Pigs and US missiles near the USSR contributed.

What was the Washington-Moscow hotline (1963)?

A direct communications link established to help leaders communicate quickly and reduce the risk of misunderstandings during crises.

What was the Limited Test Ban Treaty (1963)?

An agreement by the USA, USSR and Britain to ban nuclear tests in the atmosphere, underwater and in space, but not underground.

What does détente mean?

A reduction in tension and an improvement in relations between the USA and USSR, especially during the late 1960s and 1970s.

Why did the USA seek détente?

The Vietnam War was costly, nuclear arms competition was expensive, and leaders wanted stability and room to manage other international problems.

Why did the USSR seek détente?

Its economy struggled with the arms race; it wanted trade and technology from the West and recognition of its status as a superpower.

What was the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968)?

A treaty intended to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons, encourage peaceful nuclear cooperation and promote eventual disarmament.

What was SALT I (1972)?

The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks agreement; it limited some anti-ballistic missile systems and placed temporary limits on certain strategic missile launchers.

What was the significance of the ABM Treaty (1972)?

It restricted anti-ballistic missile defences, helping preserve the idea of mutual vulnerability and discourage a destabilising arms race.

What was the Helsinki Accords (1975)?

An agreement recognising European borders and sovereignty while including commitments on human rights, cooperation and freedom of movement.

Why were the Helsinki Accords important to dissidents?

The human-rights commitments gave critics of communist governments a standard they could use to challenge repression.

Why did détente weaken in the late 1970s?

Soviet actions in Africa, disagreements over human rights and arms, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan undermined trust.

Why did the USSR invade Afghanistan in December 1979?

It aimed to support a struggling communist government and protect Soviet influence and security in a strategically important neighbouring region.

How did the USA respond to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan?

Carter condemned the invasion, imposed sanctions, increased defence spending and led a boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics.

What was the Carter Doctrine (1980)?

The USA declared it would use force if necessary to defend its interests in the Persian Gulf against outside control.

Why did the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan damage détente?

It appeared to show Soviet expansionism, destroyed trust and led to renewed US-Soviet confrontation.

What was Reagan's approach to the USSR?

He adopted a hard-line policy, increased US military spending, criticised communism and sought to pressure the Soviet Union.

What was the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), announced in 1983?

A proposed US missile-defence system, nicknamed 'Star Wars', intended to intercept incoming nuclear missiles using advanced technology.

Why did SDI concern the USSR?

It threatened to undermine Soviet nuclear deterrence and could force the USSR into an expensive technological and military competition.

What was the Euromissile crisis?

A dispute over Soviet SS-20 missiles and NATO's decision to deploy US Pershing II and cruise missiles in Western Europe unless an arms agreement was reached.

When did Mikhail Gorbachev become Soviet leader?

March 1985.

What was perestroika?

Gorbachev's policy of restructuring the Soviet economy, introducing limited market mechanisms and reforming the system.

What was glasnost?

Gorbachev's policy of greater openness, allowing more public discussion, criticism and access to information.

Why did Gorbachev want to improve relations with the West?

The USSR faced economic weakness and the cost of the arms race; better relations could reduce military spending and support reform.

What was the significance of the Geneva Summit (1985)?

Reagan and Gorbachev began a more constructive relationship and agreed that nuclear war must never be won and must never be fought.

What happened at the Reykjavik Summit (1986)?

Reagan and Gorbachev discussed dramatic nuclear reductions, but talks failed over SDI; the meeting helped prepare later arms agreements.

What was the INF Treaty (1987)?

The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty eliminated US and Soviet ground-launched missiles with ranges of 500-5,500 km and included verification measures.

Why was the INF Treaty a major breakthrough?

For the first time, an entire category of nuclear weapons was eliminated, with on-site inspections to verify compliance.

What was the significance of the Washington Summit (1987)?

Reagan and Gorbachev signed the INF Treaty, demonstrating that negotiation could replace confrontation.

What was the significance of the Malta Summit (December 1989)?

Bush and Gorbachev discussed the dramatic changes in Eastern Europe; it symbolised the end of Cold War confrontation, though no formal treaty ended it.

Why did Gorbachev refuse to use force to preserve communist regimes in Eastern Europe?

He rejected the Brezhnev Doctrine, reduced Soviet intervention and allowed Eastern European states to choose their own political direction.

What happened in Poland in 1989?

Solidarity won a major victory in partly free elections, leading to the first non-communist-led government in the Soviet bloc.

What happened in Hungary in 1989?

The communist government introduced reforms, opened its border with Austria and allowed a transition towards multi-party democracy.

What happened in East Germany in 1989?

Mass protests and emigration weakened the regime; on 9 November, the Berlin Wall was opened.

Why did the Berlin Wall fall in November 1989?

Growing protests, mass emigration, reform movements and Gorbachev's refusal to use Soviet force undermined East German communist rule.

What happened in Czechoslovakia in 1989?

The peaceful Velvet Revolution ended communist rule and brought a non-communist government to power.

What happened in Romania in December 1989?

A violent revolution overthrew Nicolae Ceaușescu's regime; he was captured and executed after a brief trial.

When was Germany reunified?

3 October 1990, when the German Democratic Republic joined the Federal Republic of Germany.

Why was German reunification significant?

It ended the division of Germany, symbolised the collapse of the post-war settlement and showed Soviet acceptance of a united Germany in NATO.

When and why did the Warsaw Pact end?

It was formally dissolved in July 1991 because communist governments had fallen and Soviet control over Eastern Europe had collapsed.

When did the USSR collapse?

December 1991, when the Soviet Union formally dissolved into independent republics.

What factors caused the end of the Cold War?

Gorbachev's reforms and non-intervention, Soviet economic weakness, arms-control agreements, popular protest and the collapse of communist regimes.

How did ideology contribute to the Cold War?

Opposing political and economic systems created suspicion and competition, but security fears and conflicting aims turned ideological rivalry into confrontation.

How important was Stalin in causing the Cold War?

Stalin's control of Eastern Europe and broken promises heightened tensions; however, US containment and mutual insecurity also contributed.

How important was the USA in causing the Cold War?

US containment, the atomic monopoly and economic influence alarmed Stalin; however, Soviet expansion and repression made Western fears credible.

Why was the Berlin Blockade a key early Cold War crisis?

It was the first major direct confrontation, tested Western resolve, led to the airlift and accelerated the division of Germany and military blocs.