Biotechnology

DNA Cloning

Creating copies of DNA fragments by inserting them into vectors like plasmids.

Restriction Enzymes

Molecular scissors that cut DNA at specific sequences, leaving sticky ends.

Recombinant DNA

Formed by pairing up sticky ends of DNA fragments and joining them with DNA ligase.

Cloning Vector

A plasmid or viral DNA that carries recombinant DNA into host cells.

PCR

Polymerase Chain Reaction, a process to amplify specific DNA segments.

Denaturation

The step in PCR where heat separates DNA strands.

Annealing

The step in PCR where primers attach to target sequences.

Extension

The step in PCR where Taq polymerase synthesizes new DNA strands.

Sanger Sequencing

A DNA sequencing method using dideoxynucleotides to terminate replication.

Gene Therapy

Fixing defective genes by introducing functional copies into cells.

Viruses

Infectious agents with a core of DNA or RNA and a protein coat.

Lytic Cycle

A viral replication process where the virus hijacks the host cell and causes cell lysis.

Lysogenic Cycle

A viral replication process where viral DNA integrates into the host genome and remains dormant.

Bacteria

Single-celled prokaryotic organisms without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles.

Transformation

The uptake of DNA from the environment by bacteria.

Transduction

The viral transfer of bacterial genes.

Conjugation

The direct transfer of DNA between bacteria using a pilus.

Archaea

Prokaryotic organisms with unique traits, genetically closer to eukaryotes than bacteria.

Flagellated Protozoans

Protozoans that use flagella for movement; examples include Giardia and Trypanosoma.

Dinoflagellates

Photosynthetic organisms that can cause harmful algal blooms.

Apicomplexans

Parasites like Plasmodium that cause malaria.

Amoebas

Protozoans that use pseudopods for movement and feeding.

Cuticle

A waxy layer in plants that prevents water loss.

Stomata

Small openings on plant leaves that regulate water retention and gas exchange.

Xylem

Vascular tissue in plants that transports water and minerals.

Phloem

Vascular tissue in plants that transports sugars.

Alternation of Generations

Plant life cycle involving gametophyte (haploid) and sporophyte (diploid) stages.

Bryophytes

Nonvascular plants that are gametophyte-dominant, such as mosses.

Angiosperms

Flowering plants characterized by enclosed seeds.