Psych Test 1

Term

Definition

Dependent variable

The variable being measured in an experiment; the outcome.

Independent variable

The variable the researcher changes or manipulates.

Control group

The group that does not receive the experimental treatment and provides a comparison.

Descriptive research

Research that observes and describes behavior without determining cause and effect.

Double-blind experiment

An experiment in which neither the participants nor the researchers interacting with them know who is receiving the treatment.

External validity

How well research findings generalize to other people, settings, or situations.

Internal validity

How confidently an experiment shows that the independent variable caused the change in the dependent variable.

Longitudinal design

Research that studies the same people over an extended period of time.

Meta-analysis

A statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple studies on the same topic.

Correlational research

Research examining the relationship between two variables; it cannot by itself establish causation.

Placebo effect

A change caused by a person's belief or expectation that they are receiving a treatment.

Random assignment

Randomly placing participants into experimental groups to reduce preexisting differences.

Operational variable

how a variable will be measured or manipulated in a study.

Cross-sectional design

Research comparing different groups of people at one point in time.

Case study

An in-depth investigation of one person, group, or unusual case.

Third variable problem

When an unmeasured variable influences two correlated variables, making the relationship misleading.

Biology / Neuroscience

Term

Definition

Action potential

An electrical impulse that travels down a neuron's axon.

Amygdala

Brain structure involved in processing emotions, especially fear and threat.

Corpus callosum

A bundle of nerve fibers connecting the brain's two hemispheres.

Brain stem

The part of the brain connecting the brain to the spinal cord; controls basic survival functions such as breathing and heartbeat.

Frontal lobes

Brain region involved in planning, decision-making, judgment, movement, and personality.

Hippocampus

Brain structure important for forming and organizing new memories.

Neural networks

Interconnected groups of neurons that work together to process information.

Hypothalamus

Brain structure that helps regulate hunger, thirst, temperature, hormones, and homeostasis.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change its structure and functioning in response to experience, learning, or injury.

Central nervous system (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord.

Parasympathetic nervous system

calms the body and conserves energy—“rest and digest.”

Sympathetic nervous system

activates the body during stress—“fight or flight.”

Temporal lobe

hearing, language, and memory.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

All nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

Synapses

Junctions where neurons communicate with one another, usually using neurotransmitters.

Term

Definition

Binocular cues

Depth cues that require both eyes, such as retinal disparity.

Bottom-up processing

Building perception from sensory information coming into the brain.

Top-down processing

Using expectations, knowledge, and experience to interpret sensory information.

Cones

Retinal receptors responsible for color vision and sharp vision in bright light.

Rods

Retinal receptors sensitive to dim light and important for peripheral vision.

Gestalt psychology

we naturally organize sensory information into meaningful wholes.

Figure-ground relationship

Perceiving an object as the figure against its surrounding background.

Opponent-process theory

Theory that color vision works through opposing pairs such as red-green and blue-yellow.

Priming

associations in memory, influencing how we respond to later information.

Selective attention

Focusing conscious awareness on certain stimuli while filtering out others.

Trichromatic theory

Theory that color vision comes from three types of cones sensitive to different wavelengths.

Sensory adaptation

Reduced sensitivity to a constant, unchanging stimulus.

Weber's law

The small difference between stimuli is a constant proportion of the original stimulus.

Easy distinction:

Bottom-up = stimulus → brain

Top-down = brain/expectations → interpretation

Consciousness

Term

Definition

Latent content

According to Freud, the hidden, symbolic meaning of a dream.

Reticular activating system (RAS)

Network involved in arousal, alertness, and regulating the sleep-wake cycle.

Theory of mind

The ability to understand that other people have their own thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and perspectives.

REM sleep

Sleep stage characterized by rapid eye movements, vivid dreaming, and brain activity resembling wakefulness.

Circadian rhythms

24-hour cycles regulating processes such as sleep and body temperature.

Executive function

Mental abilities involved in planning, controlling impulses, making decisions, and working toward goals.

Meditation

A practice involving focused attention or awareness designed to promote relaxation and mental control.

Health Psychology

Term

Definition

Emotion-focused coping

Managing the emotional response to a stressful situation rather than directly changing the situation.

General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Selye's model to prolonged stress: alarm → resistance → exhaustion.

HPA axis

Hormonal system in the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands that regulate the stress response.

Problem-focused coping

Taking action to change or solve the stressful situation itself.

Positive reappraisal

Finding a positive meaning or benefit in a stressful or difficult experience.

Theory of planned behavior

Theory stating that behavior is influenced by intentions, which are shaped by attitudes, social norms, and perceived behavioral control.

Social support

Emotional, informational, or practical help received from other people.

Behavioral medicine

Field combining behavioral and medical knowledge to understand and improve health and illness.

Coping shortcut:

Problem-focused = change the problem

Emotion-focused = manage your feelings about the problem

Thinking, Learning & Intelligence (TLI)

Term

Definition

Confirmation bias

Tendency to seek or interpret information that supports what you already believe.

Availability heuristic

Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.

Hindsight bias

Tendency to believe, after an event, that you could have predicted it.

Intellectual disability / intellectual developmental disorder

Condition involving significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior beginning during the developmental period.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

A standardized score intended to measure cognitive abilities relative to others of the same age.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging something based on how closely it matches a typical example or prototype.

Base rate neglect

Ignoring general statistical information in favor of specific information.

Functional fixedness

Difficulty seeing a new use for an object beyond its usual purpose.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts used to make judgments and decisions quickly.

Triarchic theory of intelligence

Intelligence involves analytical, creative, and practical abilities.

Heuristic example:

You meet someone wearing a lab coat and assume they're a scientist. That's representativeness.

You hear about a plane crash and suddenly think flying is extremely dangerous because the example is easy to remember. That's availability.

Motivation & Emotion

Term

Definition

Broaden-and-build model

positive emotions broaden thinking and behavior and help build lasting resources.

Extrinsic motivation

Motivation driven by external rewards or avoiding punishment.