V. Patho 141- Cytopathology

FMD

________ where lesions may coalesce so that vacuoles become bigger and they join together so that there is bursting of cells forming vesicle.

cell

constantly undergoes changes in its structure and function in response to a variety of demands and stresses

cell

capable of maintaining a steady state and preserves its functional and morphological status within limits

degenerations

changes that take place in response to reversible injuries

cell death (necrosis)

changes due to lethal injuries

cell injury

any change resulting to a loss in the ability of the cell to maintain normal or adaptive homeostatic state

interference with the energy or oxygen supply to the cell;
cell injury due to membrane damage

mechanism of cell injury

formation of free radicals

cell injury due to peroxidation of membrane lipids (e.g. CC14)

direct interaction with components of membranes

cell injury that occurs via the membranes, eg. mercuric Cl

mitochondria, ER

membranes of the _____ and _____ are specifically susceptible to free radicals because of their high unsaturated fatty acids content while the membrane of lysosomes is more resistant because of their low content of unsaturated fatty acids

changes in injured cells are observed at the ultrastructural level (EM)

-alteration in the plasma membrane
-mitochondrial swelling resulting from ionic shift with formation of dense granules
-dilation and proliferation of endoplasmic reticulum
-detachment of ribosomes with decrease protein synthesis
-changes in the lysosomes

lipid peroxidation

Impairment in mitochondrial respiration because ____ _____ inhibits coupling of phosphorylation to oxidation

alteration in the plasma membrane

include cell swelling, formation of cytoplasmic blebs, blunting and distortion of microvilli with deterioration and loosening of intercellular attachment; reflect the disturbance of ion and volume regulation

changes observed under the light microscope

-swollen or enlarged cells
-cloudy appearance
-Vacuolation of the cytoplasm or moth-eaten appearance of the cytoplasm
-clumped chromatin

chemical

bacterial toxins, mycotoxins, snake venoms, chlorphenoxy cpds, nitrates, hypervitaminsosis A & D, autodigestion are what examples of agents in causing cell injury?

physical

cutting objects, blows, compression, lightning, high frequency currents, heatstroke, UV light, local tissue freezing are what examples of agents in causing cell injury?

biologic

viruses, prions, bacteria, chlamydia, rickettsia, mycoplasma, fungi, cestodes, nematodes, insects are what examples of agents in causing cell injury?

nutritional

protein, vitamins, calories are what examples of agents in causing cell injury?

environmental

dehydratio, asphyxia, Vit D malfunction are what examples of agents in causing cell injury?

genetic

Spectrum from mutant genes to chromosome breaks are what examples of agents in causing cell injury?

immunologic

spectrum from anaphylaxis to immune mediated diseases are what examples of agents in causing cell injury?

water overload, metabolite overload, storage loading

three (3) main groups of cellular degeneration and infiltration

water overload

A result of severe mitochondrial damage, termination of ATP production and failure of sodium pump resulting to increased osmotic pressure within cells = hypoxia

liver, kidneys, brain

hydropic degeneration is best observed in the ____, _____, _____ because of their very high metabolic rates.

Water overload (hydropic degeneration)

common response to most types of injury; Seen in cells infected with viruses e.g. FMD where lesions may coalesce so that vacuoles become bigger

Metabolic overload

refers to excessive accumulation of normal metabolic products such as fat, glycogen or protein

Fat overload

-Occurs in parenchymal cells e.g. liver cells, tubular epithelial cells of the kidney and myocardial cells.
-Seen in disease that affect or disturb normal fat metabolism

Fat overload

diabetes mellitus (DM) and starvation are what causes of cell degeneration?

Fatty change (Fatty Degeneration/Fat Phanerosis)

A primary degenerative change in cells characterized by the presence of multiple small droplets of fat within the cell’s cytoplasm

Fatty Infiltration (Steatosis)

Characterized by a single globule of fat in the cytoplasm of a cell that displaces the nucleus on the side.

Hyaline Change (Hyalinization, Hyaline Degeneration)

pink staining, homogenous, glassy cytoplasmic droplets in cells; result from accumulation of protein within cells following abnormal metabolism

Fibrinoid

A spherical type of protein accumulation that resembles coagulated fibrin; Found in degenerating blood vessel walls and connective tissues

Amyloidosis

Protein accumulation characterized by deposition of proteinaceous material in the basement membrane. Consists of protein molecules that appear amorphous, eosinophilic material

Mucopolysaccharidosis

secretions of epithelial cells; also found in ground substances of connective tissue and cartilage; formed by osteoblasts and fibroblasts.

Hypothyroidism

causes of protein overload; myxedema or the subcutaneous accumulation of mucoid substances; a low protein diet or poor-quality ration

carbohydrate overload (glycogen degeneration)

Characterized by the presence of abnormally large amount of glycogen in the cytoplasm of cells; normally present in liver cells

Carotene and xanthophylls

yellow body fat of Jersey and Guernsey cattle and lutein cells of corpora luteum

Dry Gangrene

________ occurs in tissues with limited content of blood and fluid due to evaporation Due to ischemia as in freezing or vasoconstriction due to tight bandages and casts Usually affects tail, ears and limbs.

Excessive accumulation

________ occurs in certain diseases characterized by prolonged hyperglycemia like DM.

C Haematoidin

________ or Bilirubin Present in tissues following excessive hemorrhage or hemolysis and failure of the liver to conjugate bilirubin into bile and /or secrete bile Occurs in association with jaundice (yellowing of tissues because of excessive levels of bilirubin inplasma) d. Porphyrins Porphyrin pigments may accumulate in the blood; porphyria cause pigmentation of tissues, jaundice and photosensitization Caused by a defect in hemoglobin formation such as in congenital porphyria In congenital porphyria, lesions such as: a) Edema and inflammation are observed in non- pigmented areas of the skin (photosensitization dermatitis in cattle) b) Staining of teeth and bones of cattle making them red in color when the pigment accumulates in these structures (pink- tooth) c) Results to dark color of urine Also associated in some disease conditions following ingestion of toxic plants (porphyrin is formed following breakdown of chlorophyll in plants) Porphyrin is photoreceptive and produce photosensitization when animal is exposed to sunlight because it can activate some processes (e.g.

Tubercles

________ and encapsulated dead parasites e. Desquamation or Sloughing Dead epithelium or surface cells desquamate or fall off Clumping of desquamated epithelial cells in the lumen of glands, ducts and intestinal lumen Larger and deeper layers of tissues may also slough off f. Scar formation Occurs following abscess formation, encapsulation, cyst formation, infarction g. Calcification When a necrotic tissue is converted into a sandy mass to make the tissue inert and harmless h. Gangrene When necrotic tissue is exposed to oxygen allowing saprophytic bacteria to multiply i. Atrophy- decrease in size of tissue A natural sequel to necrosis due to loss of cells j. Regeneration Formation of new cells as replacement for dead cells Seen in epithelial surfaces, liver and kidney, cells lining the alveoli.

Carbon

________ is seen as black granules in cells or in between cells.

D Mucopolysaccharidosis

________ (Myxoid or myxomatous degeneration /mucoid degeneration) secretions of epithelial cells; also found in ground substances of connective tissue and cartilage; formed by osteoblasts and fibroblasts.

Anthracosis

A condition due to inhalation of carbon particles, carbon being the most common exogenous pigmentseen in tissues.

carbon particles

When ________ are present in large amounts, it results to a mauled appearance or a black and gray colorof affected lungs.

F Eosinophilia

________- cytoplasm takes acid stain /dye and becomes dark pink or red in color g. Opacification due to denaturation of protein in cytoplasm h. Positive staining with vital dyes reflecting abnormal membrane permeability i. Cytoplasmolysis- lysis of the cytoplasm so that it has vacuolated appearance.

mitochondrial respiration

Impairment in ________ because lipid peroxidation inhibits coupling of phosphorylation to oxidation.

Swollen

________ or enlarged cells- results to compression of surrounding structures 2.

b Cessation

Decrease in intracellular pH due to altered metabolism in dying cells ________ of oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria leading to further decrease in pH c. Depletion of ATP and disruption of Na- K pump d. Influx of Na and efflux of K e. Water goes inside the cell= increase osmotic pressure f. Disruption of organelles; release of enzymes presents in lysosomes g. Denaturation of CHON and lysis of cell** Enzymes and denatured protein molecules released from dead cells to go to the circulation and when detected in high levels in the serum indicates disease condition e.g.

deterioration

Alteration in the plasma membrane- include cell swelling, formation of cytoplasmic blebs, blunting and distortion of microvilli with ________ and loosening of intercellular attachment.

iron C Colored Substances

Metals- silver, bismuth, gold, lead, ________- carotene, tetracycline, kaolin, tattooing inks D. Fungi- Monilia, Aspergilli.

Glycogen

________ appears as clear spaces or vacuoles in the cytoplasm because ________ is water soluble and is dissolved during processing.

heavy organ

Swelling of cells result to enlarged pale and ________ Best observed in the liver, kidneys, and brain because of their very high metabolic rates.

autolysis

Swelling of lysosomes= ________ and necrosis.

RBCs

________ (variable life span depending on species of animal) turnover starts when their Hb molecules begin to participate and new Hb will be produced by the bone marrow to replace the dying ________

Infarct

________- a form of coagulative necrosis resulting from a sudden deprivation of blood supply.

Infiltration

the overloading of previously normal cells with abnormal and excessive materials.

Degeneration

the accumulation of metabolites or other substances in an injured and damaged cell.

Pneumoconiosis

________ This condition results from inhalation of mineral dusts Mineral dusts, when inhaled leave particles in lung tissues Common cause of chronic interstitial pneumonia in animals and humans.

Mammary glands

In the ____ _____, wet gangrene affects tissues initially due to the presence of staphylococcus organisms followed by necrosis and the invasion of saprophytic organisms

Intracellular pH

________= clumping of nuclear chromatin 5.

Wet Gangrene

________ or Moist Gangrene Affects tissues in rich blood supply The affected area is swollen, soft, pulpy and dark or black in color Has a foul, putrefactive odor; hemorrhage and edema are present in and around the lesion Often deadly because it can result to toxemia or rupture of affected tissue due to the presence of fluidand gas.

reactive

Are substances with unpaired electrons and are highly ________.

Hydropic Degeneration

________ (acute cellular swelling /cloudy swelling /ballooning degeneration) A result of severe mitochondrial damage, termination of ATP production and failure of sodium pump resulting to increased osmotic pressure within cells= hypoxia Affects the selective permeability of cellular membrane causing influx of water molecules.

Vit. E deficiency

In dogs, ________ lipofuscin pigment formation and thus called "Vit. E pigment" seen in smooth muscles of the intestines, visible grossly and is termed “brown dog gut”

Gangrenous areas

________ are separated form living tissues by a line of demarcation; visible grossly as swollen, reddish or bluish zone of hyperemia or inflammation.

Metastatic Calcification

B. ________- occurs because of ionized Ca in the blood due to excessive mobilization of Ca from the skeleton- results to Ca Deposits on basement membranes of organs and in arteries- also called "Calcinosis.

Formation of free radicals

________= peroxidation of membrane lipids (e.g.

Lead

________ chronic poisoning due to prolonged ingestion of small amounts resulted to a blue- black discoloration tothe gums In animals, chronic lead poisoning can occur due to ingestion contaminated pasture and water

low lipoprotein

Interference in protein production= ________ formation c. Impairment in the conjugation process d. Interference in the oxidation of fat e. Interference in the release of lipoprotein from the cytoplasm of the cells.

Cell death

________ occurs normally or in associated with pathological conditions.

Pigments

________- are colored substances, some of which are normal cellular constituents while some may accumulate dueto abnormal conditions.

Argyria

Deposition of organic silver in tissues; Silver was formerly used in the treatment of various infections

Bismuth

Appears as faint gray-black pigment in the form of minute granules within or in between cells. It was formerly used as a contrast media for radiographic examination.

Vacuoles

________ are seen in the cytoplasm of affected cells so that it appears foamy Vacuoles may coalesce to form large globules.

Dystrophic Calcification

________- occurs when Ca salts are deposited in degenerate and necrotic cells and tissues.

Na K pump

________ is energy dependent; following injury to cells there is decreased ATP so that there is K on efflux andNa ion influx.

Siderosis Inhalation of iron

In horses, it is a cause of chronic interstitial pneumonia b. ________ dusts Often accompanies silicosis c. Asbestosis Inhalation of asbestos from asbestos factories.

Acute cell

________ swelling in epithelial surfaces results to blisters, wheals and ulcers.

E pigment

________ "seen in smooth muscles of the intestines, visible grossly and is termed "brown dog gut.

deprivation of blood

When necrotic tissue is invaded by saprophytic organism and usually putrefactive bacteria; affects tissues following ________ supply and in tissues accessible to air- borne bacteria e.g.

Severe changes

fragmentation of membrane organelles and lysis of chromatin 14

- Occurs via

1

malonaldehyde Additional free radicals Lipid peroxidation results to

a

Alteration in the plasma membrane

include cell swelling, formation of cytoplasmic blebs, blunting and distortion of microvilli with deterioration and loosening of intercellular attachment

Changes in the lysosomes

in reversible injury, the lysosomes may appear clear and swollen without leakage of the contained enzymes

Swollen or enlarged cells

results to compression of surrounding structures 2

Cloudy appearance

due to change in staining reaction resulting from mild cell swelling 3

Vacuolation of the cytoplasm or moth-eaten appearance of the cytoplasm

due to distention of the cellular organelles e.g

Degeneration

the accumulation of metabolites or other substances in an injured and damaged cell

Infiltration

the overloading of previously normal cells with abnormal and excessive materials

Metabolite Overload

refers to excessive accumulation of normal metabolic products such as fat, glycogen orprotein

Storage Loading

the overloading of cells with non-degradable products e.g

In cachectic and wasting diseases or in animals given a low protein diet or poor-quality ration

it is observed in the omentum, coronary groove of heart and between skeletal muscles

a. Dystrophic Calcification

occurs when Ca salts are deposited in degenerate and necrotic cells and tissues

Pigments

are colored substances, some of which are normal cellular constituents while some may accumulate dueto abnormal conditions

c. Haematoidin or Bilirubin Present in tissues following excessive hemorrhage or hemolysis and failure of the liver to conjugate bilirubin into bile and/or secrete bile Occurs in association with jaundice (yellowing of tissues because of excessive levels of bilirubin inplasma) d. Porphyrins Porphyrin pigments may accumulate in the blood; porphyria cause pigmentation of tissues, jaundice and photosensitization Caused by a defect in hemoglobin formation such as in congenital porphyria In congenital porphyria, lesions such as

a) Edema and inflammation are observed in non-pigmented areas of the skin (photosensitization dermatitis in cattle) b) Staining of teeth and bones of cattle making them red in color when the pigment accumulates in these structures (pink-tooth) c) Results to dark color of urine Also associated in some disease conditions following ingestion of toxic plants (porphyrin is formed following breakdown of chlorophyll in plants) Porphyrin is photoreceptive and produce photosensitization when animal is exposed to sunlight because it can activate some processes (e.g

There are 3 modes of cell death

1

Apoptosis *1 and 2 processes are considered part of the normal homeostatic mechanisms of the body in order to

a

Refers to the entire process of cellular degeneration and death Programmed cell death Involves death of individual cells or a group of cells upon Dead cells are then replaced by similar type of cells after mitosis and meiosis Does not affect cell function and has no pathological effect Examples

1