psych 100-methods

what are braitenberg vehicles?

• valentino braitenberg: imaginary or simple robot used in a thought experiment to show how complex, life-like behaviors can emerge from very basic, direct connections between sensors and motor

• conclusion: these seemingly simple machines have very complex results. when trying to understand cognitive or behavioural mechanism, it is
  useful to consider a simple explanation because very complex behaviour can arise from a small set of simple principles

what is ockhams razor?

• william of ockham, 14th C

• given several explanations for a phenomenon, the most simple one should be accepted

  • the most simple explanations are easier to falsify or to test than more complex ones because in light of contradicting outcomes, more complex theories can generate ad hoc hypothesis to explain away
    inconsistencies

what is reductionism? what are some of its limits?

• reductionism: approach that explains complex systems, ideas, or phenomena by breaking them down into their simpler, more fundamental parts

• possible issues: complex dynamic systems can be described by simple linear functions, but the arising (emergent) behaviour may be unpredictable. AND it might leave some things out in an attempt to simplify them

what is rationalism?

• school of thought that believes that observation is unnecessary and misleading

  • using reason & logical arguments was thought the best approach to find the correct answers about the nature of mind

what is empiricism?

• hypotheses and theories about memory need to be confirmed or
  disconfirmed by observation. there are descriptive methods as well as
  experimental methods used to produce observations

  • opposes rationalism

what is inductivism?

• several observations are used to induce theories, which are used to deduce hypotheses, leading to more observations, eventually to arrive at laws

what is critical rationalism?

• theories need to produce statements (hypotheses) that can be refuted. fair tests are designed to refute the predictions (=falsification), and not to confirm
  the theory

• if one thing is falsified, the theory is wrong

  • the exception that proves/negates the rule

what is the scientific process according to kuhn?

• constructivism: science does not progress in a steady, linear, or cumulative way toward an ultimate truth. instead, science moves through an episodic cycle of stability and radical disruption

• “doing science” is a subjective human behavior and a social activity→ there isn’t truly a pure or objective science

what are observer effects?

• social aspects can undermine the experimental approach and outcome in psychological experiments

  • ex. experimenter bias, demand characteristics, representativeness, and artificiality

what is experimenter bias?

• an observer effect!

• the unconscious or unintentional tendency of a researcher to influence the results, data, or participants of a study to increase the likelihood of confirming their own hypothesis

  • or, generally, their own personal biases

what are demand characterisitcs?

• an observer effect!

• subtle cues or features in a psychological study that inadvertently tip off participants to the researcher's hypotheses or expected findings

  • can lead participants to respond in a way to confirm the assumed hypotheses, in order to please the experimenter

what is the milgram experiment?

• yale study by stanley milgram

• example of demand characteristics

• measured how far ordinary people would go in obeying an authority figure, even if it meant inflicting severe pain or harm on an innocent person

  • most people went to extremes despite distress, still obeying the authority figure

what is representativeness?

• an observer effect!

• data obtained for psychological research do not represent humanity in general because of the demographics that participants and researchers come from

  • can the results be replicated elsewhere?

what is artificiality?

• an observer effect!

• the unnatural nature of a laboratory environment and the tasks being performed in psychological experiments can alter the behavior of participants and the results of the experiment

what is inferential statistics?

what is the hawthorne effect?

• a psychological and behavioral phenomenon where people modify or improve an aspect of their behavior simply because they know they are being observed, studied, or receiving extra attention, rather than because of changes in external conditions

what is naturalistic observation?

• a research method where scientists and psychologists study the behavior of people or animals in their natural environment without any interference, control, or manipulation of variables

  • field studies

  • trying to get rid of as many observer effects as possible

what is reactivity?

• also known as the observer effect!

• occurs when people alter their performance, habits, or behavior because they are aware they are being watched, tested, or studied

what is the experimenter expectancy effect?

• an observer effect!

• when a researcher’s own biases or goals for the experiment inadverntently impact the results of an experiment

what is response bias?

• an observer effect!

• a systematic tendency for participants to answer survey or interview questions inaccurately, dishonestly, or in a distorted way rather than reflecting their true opinions or behaviors

  • because they want it to reflect well on themselves, or to help the experimenters

what is correlation? what are correlational studies?

• correlation: statistical relationship or association between two or more variables

  • how are these things related? how strong is their relationship?

• correlational study: non-experimental research design where psychologists measure two or more variables as they naturally occur in the real world, without manipulating or controlling any of them

  • correlation is not the same thing as causation!

  • wants to examine the relationship between two things!

what is the directionality problem?

• directionality problem: methodological issue in correlational research where a researcher finds a statistical relationship between two variables (X and Y), but cannot determine which variable is the cause and which is the effect