Sociology Flashcard (Week 2-4)

What is the Sociological Imagination?

The ability to connect personal experiences with broader social structures and historical change.

What is biography?

An individual’s life and experiences understood within their social context.This is a person’s experiences, choices, struggles and circumstances. Mill wants people to look at how the life of individuals have been shaped by the society that we live in.

What is history?

The wider social and historical changes shaping people’s lives and opportunities. History is looking more about the social changes, institutions and the circumstances of certain periods of time that aid in the shaping of human lives.

What are personal troubles?

These are private problems that arise within individuals’ immediate lives and relationships.

What are public issues?

These. are problems that are rooted in broader social structures and institutions affecting many people.

What is a milieu?

The immediate social environment in which a person lives and acts. So this is part of what Mill was discussing when he was talking about the fact that it can be hard for a person to break out of their immediate lives and the technical terminology for that is the milieu. (ex: workplace, school and family things such as that)

Why is the milieu important?

When Mill was talking about the sociological imagination, he talked about lot about the personal experiences that a person has and those personal experiences are because of wider historical and structural forces that shape us and how we are. It is our immediate world.

What is social structure?

The larger organization of social relationships and institutions shaping individual lives.

What is historical context?

The circumstances and changes of a particular period that shape people’s experiences.

What is structural change?

A transformation in the organization of society and its institutions.

In the context of Mills what is the distinction between personal and public issues?

A personal issue involves their immediate milieu and the experiences they have. A wider social structure gives a potential explanation behinds the things that took place in that person’s lives. Even when people have personal experiences and situations in their lives, that does not discount the social issues that one may experiences. —> He is trying to make it clear that individual issues should be looked at without insinuating that they are always a larger issue.

What is the social imagination in terms of biography and history?

It is an understand of how how the lives of individuals and broader historical forces can coexist with onerous another.

Why is biography and history related?

The economic changes, inequality and historical changes that could take place in the world could affect a person’s individual experiences, their choices, the difficulties they face and much more.

What was Christakis talking about in “The Society within us?”

He is explaining how people have more social tendencies that help us relate to each other and form society with one another even if the cultures we create differ. (He uses an example of children playing and how they did not even understand one another but he was able to play with the other children)

He is talking about how our evolutionary growth have helped us develop the skills to socialize with one another. Culture shapes how our capacity for social connection is expressed, but not every aspect of one’s social behavior.

What is the social suite?

The social suite is the evolved social capacities of human beings that enable people to form relationships, cooperate, organize groups and create societies.

Our capacity to socialize has developed throughout history and our capacities make it so that certain forms of social life is possible but it does not mean that society would act exactly the same. (While human beings are able to cooperate with one another, the obligations they have and the way they are able to organize their collective activities may differ)

How do human’s conform?

Humans “hang out”, “patrol turf” socialize in many if the same ways that other species do.

What differs human beings from other species? (In terms of our social skills)

Human beings have an extraordinarily long period of juvenile dependency which is because we run on society and comunative culture instead of intra-womb development and instinct like animals.

What is in-group bias?

A tendency to favor people perceived as members of one’s own group.

What is a mild hierarchy?

The formation of differences in status or influence within groups, alongside the possibility of relatively egalitarian relationships.

What is social learning and teaching?

That is the capacity to acquire knowledge and skills from others and to transmit them to others.

Why is Christakis’ social suite important?

It is important because he is emphasizing how people can still establish relationships and connection with others even if they do not share the same language or cultural practices.

He is not saying that social life can be entirely explained by the practices and values that people learn. He is also not saying that our genes are what rigidly deters all the behaviors we could possibly exhibit.

What is the distinction between Mills and Chistakis?

Christakis takes a micro lens when looking at towards society’s effects and Mills is more macro. Biology leads to social structures which then leads to us. Whereas Mills talks about how biography and history is intertwined. Mills is saying that the physical sciences is not the common denominator which differs from Christakis.

Mills discusses more of the social and historical conditions that shape the lives of humans. Mills is interested in doing deeper dives into the lives of human beings and understanding how things that may be seemingly individual could actually be connected to something much larger. He wants to know how created sociological factors may affect humans at an individual level.

Chistakis on the other hand looks at human beings and the evolved capacities that they inhabit that made it so that certain themes in social life show up ion different societies and cultures. He is saying that we are not entirely blank slates who learn as we experience the world, but he does not believe that biology is what determines exactly how we behave. (Ex: Human beings in general can make friends, but different cultures could think about friendships in different ways.

How are Mills and Christakis potentially complementary in their thinking?

When examined together, they suggest that human beings and their social life should be separated into the human capacities that we have to form relationships and the historical and cultural contexts for why those capacities were expressed the way they were.

Turning to Marx, what does he mean when he says capitalism?

For Marx, capitalism is an economic and social system that is organized around private ownership of the means of production and the pursuit of profit.

When he is talking about a means of production, he is talking about the resources that are used to produce goods and services: workplaces, machinery, tools and other productive resources.

Capitalists/Owners

Own or control productive resources and invest capital to ternate profit —> They then employ workers who sell their labor power —? The workers and the wage laborers themselves generally lack sufficient productive resources of their own and that means that have to to work for wages to support themselves.

The tension here is that the workers are the ones to produce the good and services, but the owners are the ones that control the production process and the products and their the ones who receive the profit.

What is a consequence that Marx mentions in regards to workers and their work?

Marx argues that under capitalism, workers can be separated from their labor and their products. (This is more than a person simply disliking their job)

What are the different types of alienation that one could experience at their job?

1. Alienation from the Product (You are creating something that you do not control or own after you produce it because it belongs to someone else, so in a way, the product could become a source of profit and power over you)

2. Alienation from the process of labor (A person may have little control over how they work, when or what tasks they are asked to do. Work becomes a means of survival rather than an activity you do for yourself.)

3. Alienation from human potential (Marx brings focus to our human capacity for conscious, creative and purposeful activity and when work is control by necessity and demands the work becomes less about that creativity and expression of our abilities.)

4. Alienation from other people (The relationships that one has at work can be organized around things like competition, wages, ownership and economic interests rather than shared activity and mutual benefit.)

Important Note: Marx is not saying that all work is inherently alienating, there is a necessity and human beings working. Marx is just saying that creative activity is also important in thinking about human fulfillment. The problem is also the way that work is organized under capitalism where workers are compelled to sell their labor power while someone else controls the production process.

Capitalism also incentivizes selfishness

How are alienation and exploitation different?

Alienation talks about the worker’s relationship to their work, product, human potential and other people.

Exploitation concerns the economic relationship through which the owners obtain the surplus value from workers’ labor.

What is surplus value?

It is how profit is connected to the difference between the value workers produce and the value they receive in wages after looking at the relevant costs and conditions of production.

Marx’s focus in on the structure of the relationship between capital and labor and not necessarily on one’s individual morality.

What is Marx’s house and what does it represent?

We have the economic base at the bottom. For that, we are thinking about how it is the root, (Who owns productive resources? Who works? Who controls production? How is wealth produced and distributed?) —> The base shapes the conditions in which institutions and ideas develop and also class determines everything it’s just we don’t see that because of the superstructure.

The superstructure are institutions like (the law, government, politics, education, religion, cultural ideas and ideologies.) —> The superstructure helps us organize, legitimize, reproduce the economic order. The superstructure makes us believe that certain structures are autonomous when they are actually servants of the bourgeoisie.

Important Note: American policy is very tied to corporate America (superpac) than it is to public opinion. This idea of individuality could incentive people to believe that their hard work is what could get them to success.

How does the base create change in the superstructure?

For Marx, the economic base—the organization of production, ownership, and class relations—fundamentally shapes the political, legal, and ideological superstructure. (So, the understanding that there are some people that need to sell their labor and some people who are protecting what they own, the superstructure would then create rules and laws to help maintain that economic understanding further perpetuating things like class)

These institutions and ideas can help reproduce existing economic relations by protecting property, regulating labor, and legitimizing inequality. However, the relationship is not simply one-way: political struggles and institutional changes can alter economic relations. The model therefore helps explain both the reproduction of capitalism and the possibility of social transformation. (in terms of the way that the super structure can affect the base, laws that are shaped by the economic relations the time can also can either reproduce the existing economic base and also alter what is in existence at the same time)

How could social change take place when looking at the base and superstructure?

1. A contradiction takes place in the base (workers depend on a wage while employers want to control bar costs while maintaining profit)

2. Workers organize collectively (They form unions and demonstrate their shared interests and challenge the institutions that are in place at the moment)

3. Political and legal changes could follow (The organizing of the workers could lead to new labor protections and more rights for the workers. These changes could affect the economic relationship that takes place between the employers and the workers)

4. The ecnomic relationship changes again (Workers could gain more power and wages and working conditions could be negotiated and these changes could influence future economic sturggles)

Think about Shein and the difference in prices before and how they are a little higher now.

What does social reproduction mean?

Social reproduction means that a social arrangement continues over time.

What does social transformation mean?

Social transformation are how those social arrangements are challenged and changed.

What are the two central classes under capitalism?

1. The bourgeoisie (this is a class that owns or controls the means of production and employs workers to produce goods and services)

Example: A factory owner employs workers, owns the factory's output, and receives the profits generated by selling it.

2. The proletariat (this is the class of people who generally do not own sufficient means of productions to support themselves independently, so they myst sell their labor power for wages)

Example: A factory worker operates machinery for a wage but does not own the factory or the products being made.

Why are the two classes in conflict with one another?

• The bourgeoisie generally wants to control costs, maintain authority over production, and increase profits.

• The proletariat generally wants better wages, safer conditions, shorter hours, and greater control over working life.

These interests do not have to conflict in every individual decision. An employer might treat workers well, and workers might value their jobs. Marx's argument is that the underlying economic relationship creates a potential conflict even when individuals get along.

This is also where exploitation enters the picture. In Marx's theory, workers create value through their labor, but the value they receive back as wages is not necessarily equal to the new value they produce. The surplus is appropriated by the capitalist and is central to the explanation of profit.

This conflict can become a class struggle: a struggle between groups whose positions in the economic system give them different interests.

What is the petty bourgeoisie?

They are small-scale owners who posses some means of production but they usually work themselves and gave a small number of employers. (exL small workshop owners)

Why they matter: They occupy an intermediate position. They are owners, but they usually lack the economic power of large capitalists and may be vulnerable to competition from large firms.

What is the lumpenproletariat?

Marx uses this term for marginalized and socially insecure groups outside stable participation in wage labor, including some people living through irregular work or surviving through the informal economy.

Important nuance: Marx often uses the term critically, particularly in his political writings. It is not simply another name for all poor people, all unemployed people, or the entire working class.

What is Marx’s definition of class?

It is a sector of society that shares a common relation to the means of production. In order industrial societies that bourgeoisie shares its ownership of the means of production and the latter, “lower” class are those that must sell their labor under capitalism to make a living.

According to Max Weber what is a state?

A state is an entity that has a monopoly (having the exclusive authority to do something) of the legitimate use of physical force (violence) within a given territory. Basically, states claim the exclusive right to authorize the use of physical force within its territory.

For example, ordinary people generally cannot legally imprison someone or use force to punish them just because they want to. The state, through institutions like the police and courts, has the recognized authority to enforce laws, within legal limits.

One important nuance: the state doesn't have to be the only actor physically capable of using force. Security guards and individuals may sometimes legally use force, for example. The point is that their authority is recognized or regulated within the state's system.

What are the sources of power that Weber discusses in his text?

Class: Your economic position and the opportunities available to you in the workplace.

Status: The social honor, prestige, or esteem attached to you or your social group.

Party: Your ability to organize with others to pursue power and influence decisions.

These are not three completely separate groups of people. The same person can occupy a powerful position in all three dimensions, or have advantages in one and disadvantages in another.

How does Weber define class (economic order) ?

Weber defines class through people's market situation: their opportunities to obtain income, goods, and favorable living conditions based on what they own or what they can offer in the marketplace. (So, this is more than a division of a person being rich or poor, it is also about the resources available to a person and how beneficial these resources are)

What is the difference between Weber and Marx when it comes to class?

Marx emphasizes the relationship between ownership of the means of production and wage labor. Weber also considers ownership, but places particular emphasis on people's market position, including their skills, qualifications, and opportunities to earn income

What does Weber mean when he talks about status?

“Street Cred”

Status concerns how much social respect or honor a person or group receives. (This could depend onL Their occupation, their education, their familial background) Status is therefore not just an individual's personal popularity. It can become a structured hierarchy between social groups.

Imagine a highly paid businessperson who has considerable wealth but is not respected by a particular community. Now imagine a modestly paid teacher who is deeply respected because of their profession and service to others.

The businessperson may have greater class advantage, while the teacher may have greater status within that community.

What is party (political order) in Weber’s words?

Weber's use of party is broader than simply belonging to a political party such as Democrats or Republicans.

A party is an organization that seeks to influence collective decisions or gain power. Parties operate in the political sphere, but organizations pursuing influence can exist in other settings too.

(ex: a political party that wants to win elections and shape public policy pr a labor union organizing workers to negotiate with employers)

What is a useful example to note about class, status and party? Also why is this example important to Weber?

Consider a doctor who earns a high income, is respected in the community, and leads a professional association that lobbies the government.

• Class: Their specialized skills and earnings give them favorable market opportunities.

• Status: Their professional title may bring prestige and social respect.

• Party: Their leadership in an organized association gives them a means of influencing decisions.

Now imagine someone who is wealthy but socially excluded, or a respected community leader with little money and limited political influence. These examples show why Weber separates the three dimensions.

Important Note: We can not fully understand or explain social inequality by looking just at economic position alone

What is domination in Weber’s understanding?

For Weber, domination is the probability that a command will be obeyed by a particular group of people.

The emphasis is on the likelihood of obedience. One person or group can issue orders, and others are likely to follow them.

For example, a boss tells an employee to complete a task. If the employee is likely to comply, the boss exercises domination in Weber’s sense.

Important Note: Domination does not mean that it is something violent that is occurring, people may obey someone because they fear the consequences or because they depend on someone economically.

What is legitimate authority in Weber’s understanding?

Authority is a form of domination in which obedience is supported by a belief in the legitimacy of the person’s right to command.

For example, students follow a professor’s instructions partly because they recognize the professor’s institutional role and accept their authority in the classroom.

The crucial distinction is that obedience is not merely produced by fear or pressure; it is connected to the belief that the command-giver has a legitimate right to issue commands.

What are the three types of legitimate domination?

• Charismatic authority: People obey because they believe a leader possesses extraordinary qualities. Example: a religious leader whose followers believe they have exceptional gifts.

• Legal-rational authority: People obey because they recognize formal rules and the offices established by those rules. Example: a judge exercising legally defined powers.

• Traditional authority: People obey because of established customs and traditions. Example: a hereditary monarch.

What is the important thing to think about domination and authority?

Society requires authority; domination is not merely enough.

What is Durkheim talking about when he references mechanical solidarity?

Mechanical solidarity references social cohesion through similarity.

People feel connected because they share similar beliefs, values, traditions, and ways of life.

Example: In a small, traditional community, people may share the same religion, perform similar work, and follow common customs. Their similarities create social bonds.

What is Durkheim talking about when he references organic solidarity?

Organic Solidarity references social cohesion through interdependence.

People feel connected because they perform different roles and depend on one another.

Example: In a modern city, doctors, teachers, farmers, mechanics, and delivery drivers have different jobs. They don't need to be alike; they need one another for society to function.

The word organic is an analogy to an organism: different organs perform different functions but depend on one another to keep the whole body alive.

Is Durkheim saying that we don’t need solidarity as societies evolve? If not, explain.

Durkheim isn't simply saying that older societies have solidarity and modern societies don't. He argues that the basis of solidarity changes as the division of labor becomes more developed.

What is the conscious collective?

The collective conscience refers to the shared beliefs, values, and moral sentiments that members of a society have in common.

For example, a community might share beliefs about religion, family obligations, or what counts as right and wrong. These shared beliefs help create a sense of belonging and social cohesion.

What was Thereborn discussing in his text “The Killing Fields”

Inequality is not just about the difference in wealth it affects people's health, dignity, freedom, and ability to participate in society. Inequality is actually shortening the lives of human beings and limiting human potential.

His broader point is that inequality shapes who gets to live, who gets treated with dignity, and who has the resources and freedom to develop their human potential.

What resources inequality?

It is the unequal access to resources such as income, wealth and opportunities. (Education, Political tools and Parents) This type of inequality could stunt the opportunities that one can receive.

J-shaped countries - They begin with low inequality and overtime this goes up (India and Argentina)

U-Shaped countries begin with high inequality and it got lower, but then it went up again/ The dip mid-century occurred because of the second world war. (US and New Zealand)

What is existential inequality?

Unequal recognition, respect, dignity, and treatment as a person.

This is arguable the easiest form of inequality to change. This is generally on the decline because of things like the civil rights movement, decolonization and woman’s suffrage)

What is vital inequality?

This is arguably the most important. This is literally about a person’s unequal chances of living a long and healthy life.

If you “choose” not to be born in a fancy country then you should count your days because the country that you are born in can affect things like your mortality rate life expectancy, health expectancy and more.

In his mind, we focus to much on existential inequality and not enough about vital inequality.

What is the leisure class?

A wealthy class that demonstrates status through freedom from productive labor?

What is conspicuous consumption?

Spending visibly to demonstrate wealth, prestige, and social standing.

What is Veblen saying about people from all different social classes?

Veblen is saying that people, rich and poor alike, attempt to impress others seem to gain advantage, through what Veblen coined “conspicuous consumption” and the ability to engage in conspicuous leisure (the display of not having to work).

What is pecuniary emulation?

Imitating the spending and lifestyles of people in high social positions .

What is conspicuous leisure?

Displaying the fact that you don’t have to work. (I do not have to work and yet I am on top). This was created by capitalism.

What is the law of wasted effort?

Veblen is describing a recurring social pattern, not a literal law enforced by the government.

When a society treats expensive goods and elaborate displays as signs of respectability, people feel pressure to meet those standards. Over time, something that began as an unnecessary luxury can come to feel like a necessity.

For example, a person might initially buy formal, expensive clothing to impress others. Eventually, expensive clothing becomes associated with being respectable, and cheaper clothing may be judged negatively—even if it works just as well. Veblen argues that social customs can make unnecessary expense seem like a natural requirement of good taste

What does Merton say about American society?

He discusses that we are living in contradiction because while it seems like places like America discourage discriminatory behaviors and acts, there are still people who are perpetuating and incentivizing very negative beliefs about different groups of people.

Individual prejudice and institutional discrimination are not necessarily the same thing. Someone can personally believe in equality while participating in—or benefiting from—a social system that produce equal outcomes. Conversely, someone may hold prejudiced attitudes withou tnecessarily acting on them in every situation.

What are the four different types of ethnic prejudice and discrimination?

All Weather Liberal - Neither prejudiced nor discriminatory; believes in equality and acts accordingly, even when it is inconvenient.

Fair Weather Liberal - Believes in equality but discriminates when it is convenient, profitable, or socially advantageous.

Fair Weather Illiberal - Holds prejudiced beliefs but avoids discrimination when laws, punishment, or social pressure make it risky.

All Weather Illiberal - Holds prejudiced beliefs and consistently discriminates; does not accept the principle of equality.

What is the diffusion of responsibility?

We like for other people to have the responsibility of doing something. Like saying you got lost in a party where that music is super loud and the drinks were flowing to explain why you ended up hooking up with the person in the corner.