Psych unit 2

evolutionary psychology

drives to survive and reproduce affects behaviour

Natural selection

survival of the fittest

Nature

inherent biological and genetic factors that influence psychological traits, development, behaviours, and cognitive abilities

nurture

environmental influences that shape individual’s psychological development, behaviours, and cognitive processes

twin studies

examines similarities and differences between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to assess relative influence of genetics, environment on traits/behaviours

adoption studies

examines similarities between adopted children and their biological and adoptive families

family studies

examines differences/similarities among family members to understand interplay of genetics and environment in shaping traits/behaviours within family

heredity

transmission of genetic information from biological parents to offspring

genetic predisposition

inherited likelihood of developing traits or conditions due to genetic factors from parents

cerebral cortex

outer layer of brain - encompasses high level cognitive functions/complex neural processing (thinking, perceiving, decision-making). folds - increased SA

lobes of the brain

four main areas into which cerebral cortex is divided

association areas

areas of the brain that take info from all over (see, hear, smell, touch, etc) and put together to help understand the world

frontal lobes

at front of brain, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions (decisions, planning, personality, expression, problem solving)

prefrontal cortex

in frontal lobe, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions such as planning, self-control, decisions)

motor cortex

in frontal lobe, responsible for planning and executing voluntary movememnts

parietal lobes

at top, processing sensory info (touch, temperature, spatial awareness, senses)

somatosensory cortex

in parietal lobes, responsible for processing sensations from skin, muscles, joints (touch, pressure, temperature, pain)

occipital lobes

at the back, responsible for processing visual info from eyes (perceive shapes, colours, motions, etc)

temporal lobes

on sides, responsible for processing auditory info, language comprehension, memory formation

corpus callosum

thick band of nerve fibers that connects left and right hemispheres, allows communication/info sharing between hemispheres

brainstem

most primitive part, responsible for basic life-sustaining functions (breathing, heart rate, sleep-wake cycles), pathway for neural signals between brain and body

medulla

base of brainstem, responsible for autonomic functions (heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure), relay station between brain and spinal cord

reticular activating system (RAS)

network of neurons in brainstem, have a critical role in regulating arousal, attention, consciousness

cerebellum

back of brain below occipital lobe, responsible for coordination of movements, balance, posture (fine tunes motor movements)

limbic system

beneath cerebral cortex, set of brain structures involved in emotions, memory, motivation

reward center

primarily in limbic system, processes pleasurable experiences, reinforces associated behaviours

thalamus

in limbic system, processes and relays sensory information to cerebral cortex/directing signals to appropriate areas for further processing

hypothalamus

below thalamus, responsible for various essential bodily functions such as hunger, thirst, body temp, sleep-wake cycle, maintains homeostasis

pituitary gland

at the base of brain, “master gland”, has a central role in regulating hormone production and secretion throughout body, coordinating hormonal activity and maintaining homeostasis

hippocampus

within temporal lobes, forming and consolidating new memories/retrieving old ones

amygdala

small almond-shaped, deep within temporal lobes, processing emotions, esp fear, aggression, controls threat detection system/fight or flight

the nervous system

body’s communication network - complex system of nerves, neurons, specialized cells

central nervous system (CNS)

brain+spinal cord - command centre processing info, coordinating response, regulating bodily functions

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

nerves and ganglia outside brain and spinal cord - communication network, transmitting sensory info to CNS

autonomic nervous system

division of PNS, involuntary bodily functions

sympathetic nervous system

part of ANS, fight or flight activation - increase heart rate, dilates airways, bloodflow to essential organs, prepare to respond to perceived threats

parasympathetic nervous system

part of ANS, paralyzes sympathetic nervous system - promotes relaxation, restoring body’s calm after stress/danger, slow heart rate, constricts airways, enhance digestion

somatic nervous system

division of PNS, voluntary movements - relaying sensory info from body to CNS

neurons

specialized cell, building block of nervous system - transmitting electrical and chemical signals throughout the body

glial cells

support cells, “glue cells” - structural support, insulation, nourishment to neurons, maintain brain health, support neuronal function

motor neurons

transmit signals from CNS to muscles, glands, organs, initiate and control voluntary and involuntary movements, come from brain

sensory neurons

transmit sensory info from sensory receptors to CNS, detect stimuli, to electrical signals to be processed by brain, go into brain

interneurons

connectors within CNS, relaying between motor and sensory neurons

reflex arc

reflect action/rapid autonomic responses to stimuli without conscious thought, to spinal cord without time for brain to react quicker

dendrites

short, branching extensions that receive signals from other neurons and transmit them toward soma

axon terminals

at the end of the acon, small swellings that release neurotransmitters to communicate with neighbouring neurons

myelin sheath

fatty, insulating layer that surrounds some axons and helps speed up the transmission of electrical signals

axon

long, slender projection that carries signals away from cell body towards other neurons, muscles, glands

soma/cell body

main part of neuron that contains nucleus and other essential organelles

synapse

junction between two neurons, where communication occurs, neurotransmitters released into it to be picked by dendrites or cell body of another neuron

neural transmission

process by which neurons communicate with electrical and chemical signals (graph process)

threshold

level of stimulation required to trigger potential in a neuron

action potential

brief electrical impulse that travels along the axon - neuron receives stimulus, inside of cell made more positive than outside

all-or-nothing potential

once neuron reaches threshold, fires with action potential at full strength; if not above threshold, complete failure, if above, full

depolarization

inside gets more positive than outside bc sodium ions go inside through ion channels in membrane (up slope of graph)

refractory period

brief period after when can’t produce another action potential (sodium channels deactivated)

resting potential

stable, negative electrical charge that exists across cell membrane of a neuron when not actively transmitting signals (resting)

reuptake

process in which transmitters that have been released into synapse are reabsorbed by presynaptic neuron from which they were originally released

multiple sclerosis

autoimmune disorder where immune system attacks myelin sheath

myasthenia gravis

chronic autoimmune disorder that affects neuromuscular junction - blocks nerve impulses transmitted to muscles

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons and allow nervous system to communicate

excitatory neurotransmitters

chemicals that increase likelihood of action potential occurring in postsynaptic neuron; excites

glutamate

main excitatory neurotransmitter in CNS, key role in communication. functions: released when learning, memories, neural plasticity

inhibitory neurotransmitter

chemicals that decrease likelihood of action potential in postsynaptic neuron

GABA

primary inhibitor, promotes relaxation/reduces anxiety

dopamine

both inhibitor and excitor - regulating mood, reward, pleasure, motivation and movement (getting you to do stuff)

serotonin

opposite of dopamine - regulating mood, sleep, appetite, stress. feeling satisfied

endorphins

natural pain relievers/mood enhancers

substance p

transmitting pain signals

acetylcholine

both CNS, PNS, muscle contraction (voluntary, involuntary), memory, learning

hormones

controlled by endocrine system. travel through bloodstream, target organ cells. physiological behaviours/processes

ghrelin

stomach and intestine, stimulates appetite and promotes hunger

leptin

made by fat cells, regulates energy balance and appetite (suppresses appetite and increases energy expenditure)

melatonin

regulates sleep-wake cycles, circadian rhythms, released by pineal gland

oxytocin

love hormone - plays a key role in social bonding

adrenaline/epinephrine

plays a key role in stress response/fight or flight

norepinephrine

same definition as adrenaline, but is a “slower drip” while adrenaline is a “shot”

plasticity

brain’s ability to recognize/adapt throughout life in response to experiences, learning, environment changes

split brain research

studies those who have had a corpus callostomy (disconnects hemispheres, epilepsy treatment)

contralateral hemispheric organization

concept that each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body

hemispheric specialization

each hemisphere has specialized functions/abilities that the other may not have

linguistic processing

understanding/producing language

broca’s area

in left hemisphere’s frontal lobe, involved in speech production and language comprehension (grammar, muscles in speech)

broca’s aphasia

disorder caused by damage to broca’s area causing great difficulty in forming sentences with fluidity and correct grammar

wernicke’s area

area in left temporal lobe responsible for written and oral language comprehension

wernicke’s aphasia

disorder caused by damage to wernicke’s area resulting in fluid speech but with no real meaning

electroencephalogram “EEG”

non-invasive neuroimaging technique used to record electrical activity in the brain

functional magnetic resonance imaging “fMRI”

neuroimaging technique used to measure brain activity by detecting blood flow/oxygen levels

lesioning

research technique that intentionally destroys specific area of the brain in experimental animals

consciousness

state of being aware of and able to perceive thoughts, feelings, sensations, surroundings. there are various levels and states of consciousness

circadian rhythm

natural internal process that regulates sleep-wake cycle, which repeats about every 24 hours and influences patterns of alertness, hormone release, body temp, and other physiological processes

jet lag

change in time zone disturbs circadian rhythm

shift work

working outside of typical daytime hours disturbs circadian rhythm

NREM stage 1

first stage of non rapid eye movement sleep, in which you drift in and out of sleep for only a few minutes at the beginning. key characteristic: hypnic jerks

NREM stage 2

second stage of NREM - light sleep that lasts about 20 mins. key characteristics - sleep spindles and k-complexes

NREM stage 3

third stage of NREM - deepest sleep out of the three NREM that involves the restoration of the body and brain. predominantly delta waves are present

REM

rapid eye movement, in which there are vivid dreams and muscles are paralyzed. brain activity increased and same waves as when awake

REM rebound

body increases time spent in REM sleep after a period of REM as a compensatory response to lack of REM sleep

activation-synthesis (dreams)

a theory states that dreams are the result of random neural activity in brain stem during REM that is interpreted and synthesized by cerebral cortex into a story

consolidation theory (dreams)

a theory states that dreams play a role in memory consolidation and processing memories, integrating info from the day